The Mughal Era — Agra as Imperial Capital

Establishment of Mughal Rule

The Mughal Empire’s connection with Uttar Pradesh is inseparable — UP served as the imperial heartland for over two centuries. Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat on 21 April 1526, ending the Delhi Sultanate and establishing Mughal rule. He then defeated Rana Sanga of Mewar at the Battle of Khanwa (1527) to consolidate power.

Babur made Agra his capital, a city that Sikandar Lodi had already developed. He laid out the famous Aram Bagh (Garden of Rest) in Agra — the first Mughal garden in India, introducing the Persian char-bagh (four-fold garden) design to the subcontinent.

Exam Tip: Aram Bagh in Agra is considered India’s first Mughal garden. Babur’s memoirs (Baburnama) describe his fondness for Agra despite complaining about Indian heat and dust.

After Babur’s death (1530), his son Humayun lost the empire to Sher Shah Suri, an Afghan noble based in Bihar. Sher Shah built the famous Grand Trunk Road, which passed through UP connecting Kolkata to Peshawar.

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Akbar’s Golden Age in UP

Akbar (r. 1556-1605) is the Mughal emperor most closely associated with Uttar Pradesh. He made Agra his primary capital and later built an entirely new city nearby.

Fatehpur Sikri (1571-1585)

Akbar constructed Fatehpur Sikri about 37 km from Agra as his imperial capital. The city was built to honour Sufi saint Sheikh Salim Chishti, who had predicted the birth of Akbar’s son (Prince Salim, later Jahangir).

The Buland Darwaza (Gate of Magnificence) stands 54 metres high and is considered the tallest gateway in the world. Akbar built it to commemorate his victory over Gujarat in 1573.

Administrative Reforms

Akbar divided his empire into 15 Subahs (provinces). The territory of modern UP was divided primarily between two subahs:

• Subah of Agra — covering western and central UP
• Subah of Awadh — covering eastern UP, headquartered at Lucknow/Faizabad

Each Subah was governed by a Subedar (governor), supported by a Diwan (finance officer), Bakshi (military commander), and Sadr (religious/judicial officer).

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Todar Mal’s Revenue System

One of the most significant Mughal contributions to UP was the land revenue system designed by Raja Todar Mal, Akbar’s finance minister and one of the Navaratnas (nine jewels) of Akbar’s court.

The Dahsala / Zabti System

Todar Mal was himself from Laharpur, Sitapur district, UP. He introduced the Dahsala system (1580-1590), which standardized land revenue collection across the empire.

Exam Tip: Todar Mal was born in UP (Sitapur). The land classification system (Polaj, Parauti, Chachar, Banjar) is frequently asked in exams.

This system remained the foundation of land revenue administration in UP for centuries — the British modified but did not replace its core principles.

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Shah Jahan & Monumental Agra

Shah Jahan (r. 1628-1658) transformed Agra into one of the world’s most architecturally splendid cities. His reign represents the zenith of Mughal architecture.

Taj Mahal

The Taj Mahal was built between 1632 and 1653 as a mausoleum for Shah Jahan’s wife Mumtaz Mahal, who died during childbirth in Burhanpur.

The Taj Mahal is built on principles of perfect bilateral symmetry, with the mosque and guest house (mehman khana) mirroring each other on either side. The only asymmetric element is Shah Jahan’s own cenotaph, placed beside Mumtaz’s — he was not originally meant to be buried there.

Agra Fort Additions

While Akbar began Agra Fort in 1565 using red sandstone, Shah Jahan replaced many structures with white marble. He added the Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque), Diwan-i-Khas, and the Musamman Burj — the octagonal tower where he was later imprisoned by Aurangzeb, gazing at the Taj Mahal until his death in 1666.

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Aurangzeb & Religious Tensions

Aurangzeb (r. 1658-1707) moved the effective capital southward to the Deccan, but his policies deeply affected UP.

Kashi Vishwanath Controversy

In 1669, Aurangzeb ordered the demolition of several Hindu temples, including the original Kashi Vishwanath Temple in Varanasi. The Gyanvapi Mosque was constructed partially on its foundations. This remains one of the most historically and legally sensitive sites in UP.

Other Impacts

• Reimposition of jizya tax (1679) on non-Muslims alienated Hindu subjects
• Destruction of the Keshav Dev temple at Mathura (replaced by Shahi Idgah mosque)
• Increased Jat and Bundela revolts in UP’s Braj and Bundelkhand regions
• Economic strain from prolonged Deccan wars weakened provincial governance

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Cultural Fusion Under the Mughals

Despite political conflicts, the Mughal period produced an extraordinary cultural synthesis in UP.

• Language: Urdu emerged as a literary language — a blend of Persian, Arabic, Turkish vocabulary with Hindi grammar. Lucknow and Agra became its twin cradles.
• Art: Mughal miniature painting flourished, with workshops (karkhanas) operating in Agra.
• Music: Tansen, one of Akbar’s Navaratnas, elevated Hindustani classical music. The Agra gharana of music traces its roots to this period.
• Cuisine: The Mughal kitchen introduced biryani, kebab, korma, and pulao — dishes that became the culinary identity of Lucknow and Agra.
• Gardens: Char-bagh layouts (Aram Bagh, Mehtab Bagh, Ram Bagh) defined Agra’s landscape.

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Decline After Aurangzeb

Aurangzeb’s death in 1707 triggered rapid Mughal decline. The empire fragmented, and UP saw the rise of autonomous states:

• Awadh became semi-independent under Sa’adat Khan (1722)
• Rohilkhand fell to Ruhela Afghans
• Jat kingdom consolidated around Bharatpur (bordering UP)
• Maratha raids reached Agra and beyond

The Battle of Karnal (1739) and Nadir Shah’s sack of Delhi confirmed that Mughal authority over UP was nominal. Real power shifted to regional Nawabs and chiefs.

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Key Takeaways

• Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat (1526) and made Agra the Mughal capital
• Akbar built Fatehpur Sikri (1571-1585), abandoned due to water scarcity; Buland Darwaza is the world’s tallest gateway
• Raja Todar Mal (from Sitapur, UP) created the Dahsala revenue system
• Shah Jahan built the Taj Mahal (1632-1653) in white Makrana marble
• Aurangzeb’s policies created religious tensions; Kashi Vishwanath temple demolished (1669)
• Mughal cultural fusion gave UP its Urdu language, cuisine, music, and architectural identity

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Summary Cheat Sheet