🫁 Cell Organelles

Learn about cellular organelles

Mitochondria

  • Power house of cell’.
  • Energy is generated as ATP. ATP is known as ‘Energy currency’.
  • Mitochondria was firstly identified by Altman in 1886 as `Bioplast’ and suggested their association with respiration.
  • The term ‘mitochondria’ has been given by C. Benda (1898).
  • Matrix of Mitochondria is the site of aerobic respiration or Krebs cycle.
  • Site of glycolysis: Hyaloplasm (not cytoplasm)
  • Electron transport: Oxysome/F1 particle/Elementary particle.
  • Enzymes confined in Peri-mitochondrial space and reactions on inner membrane.
  • Mitochondria contain DNA, RNA (0.02% DNA, 3-4% RNA) & ribosomes.
  • Hence called ‘semi-autonomous’ body of the cell because of capability of some protein synthesis.

Plastids

  • According to Schimper (1885)
    • Green coloured plastids are called chloroplasts
    • Red, Yellow, Brown, OrangeChromoplast (Chromo means Coloured)
    • Colourless: Leucoplasts. The main Function of leucoplasts is food storage.

Leucoplast

  • Amyloplast: Storage of Starch
  • Elaioplast: Storage of Oils
  • Aleuronoplast or Proteinoplast: Storage of Protein

Chlorophyll

  • Chloroplast contains pigment chlorophyll
    • Chlorophyll a: Blue black, C55H72O5N4Mg
    • Chlorophyll b: Green black, C55H70O6N4Mg
  • Carotene: Yellowish Orange, C40 H56
  • Xanthophyll: Yellow, C40 H56 O2
  • Chl. a & Chl. b in green plants: 65%
    • Xanthophyll → Yellow, 29%
    • Carotene → Red, 6%
    • Carotene & Xanthophyll are together called carotenoid pigment.
    • In chromoplast, only carotenoid pigments are found.

Plant pigments

  • Plastid pigments e.g. chlorophyll, carotenoids; such pigments are soluble in organic solutions only. Found in leaves & skin of fruits.
  • Sap pigments: Solution of salts & sugars found in vacuoles e.g. Anthocyanin (soluble in water) found in flower petals & beets.

Chloroplasts

Grana lamellae

  • Thylakoids → Quantasomes contain pigment
  • Lamellae means membranous tubes.
  • Site of Light reaction: Grana/thylacoids/quantasomes → Chlorophyll
  • Site of Dark reaction: Stroma/matrix → RuBISCO
  • Chloroplast contains DNA (0.5%), RNA (3-4%) and ribosomes (70s). Therefore chloroplast is capable of some independent protein synthesis hence called semi-autonomous body of the cell.
  • A plastid has two distinct regions viz. grana & stroma.
  • Grans are stacks of membrane bound, flattened, discoid sacs containing chlorophyll molecules. Such molecules are responsible for the food production, hence called the kitchen of the cell.
  • The homogenous matrix in which grana are embedded is known as stroma.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

  • Endoplasmic Reticulum is a dense network of double membrane (unit membrane) structures running through the cytoplasm.
  • It may be continuous, some parts are connected to the nuclear membrane while others are connected to the plasma membrane especially in animals.
  • Its origin is from nuclear membranes.
  • Ultrastructure of ER was first reported by Porter (1948).
  • It is not a stable structure.
  • It is capable of being broken down and reconstructed.
  • It undergoes partial fragmentation at the time of cell division.
  • Two types of ER
    • Rough ER (RER): When ribosomes are attached on it.
    • Smooth ER (SER): No ribosomes are attached on its surface.

Function

  • ER forms endoskeleton to provide a particular shape to the cell (mechanical support), especially in animals.
  • Membranes of ER provide the surface for the increased metabolic reaction.
  • Intracellular transport of metabolic products or molecules (e.g. protein).
  • It helps in the formation of cell plate and nuclear membrane during cell division.
  • Synthesis of protein on ribosomes means Rough ER is associated with the protein synthesis.
  • Smooth ER (SER) secretes lipids which along with proteins constitute cell membrane by a process called membrane biogenesis.
  • Transmission of impulses in animals.
  • SER plays a crucial role in detoxifying many poisons & drugs.

Ribosomes/RNA particles

  • Consists of r-RNA (ribosomal RNA) 60-40% & Protein 40-60%.
  • First observed by Claude (1943) but reported as ‘microsomes’ (ER fragments + ribosomes). Palade (1956) isolated the ribosomes and reported their detailed ultra-structure.
  • The term ‘ribosomes’ by R.B. Robert (1958).

Types of RNA (non-genetic)**

  • m-RNA (messenger): 5-10% of total RNA
  • t-RNA (transfer) / soluble RNA (sRNA): 10-15% of total RNA, Smallest in size.
    • Clover leaf model.
    • m-RNA and t-RNA directly take part in protein synthesis.
  • r-RNA: provides site for protein synthesis.
    • 80% of total RNA, Most stable RNA.
  • Two major steps are involved in protein synthesis:
    • Transcription i.e. transfer of genetic information from DNA to mRNA.
    • Translation i.e. translation of the language of nucleic acids into that of proteins.
  • A ribosome has two subunits, one is smaller and other is bigger.
  • In bacterial cells & chloroplasts of higher plants, sedimentation coefficient (S) of complete ribosome is 70 S which has subunits 50 S and 30 S.
  • In higher organisms sedimentation coefficient of ribosomes is 80 S which has subunits 60 S & 40 S.
    • Higher concentration of Mg++ ion promotes association of subunits into complete ribosome.
    • Lower concentration of Mg++ dissociates these subunits.
  • There is no lipid content in ribosomes.

Golgibody/Dictyosome

  • Discovered by Camillo Golgi (1898).
  • Golgi complex or bodies are formed by stacks of flattened (saucer-shaped) membranes.
  • Flattened sacks are called cisternae. Golgi bodies are usually called dictyosomes in plants.
  • Its origin from ER.
  • Acrosomes’ are associated with Golgi complex.

Functions

  • They store, modify, package and condense the protein synthesized in the ribosomes.
  • They form the cell plate during cell division.
  • They add sugars to some proteins and synthesize some polysaccharides for the cell membrane.
  • They set aside digestive enzymes in tiny membrane bound vesicles which become ‘lysosomes’.

Lysosome

  • Lysis means digestion; Soma means body.
  • The saclike, small, spherical, single membrane bound vesicles containing digestive enzymes are called lysosomes.
  • These enzymes are synthesized in RER which are brought to the ‘Golgi Complex’.
  • Lysosomes are formed directly from Golgi complex & indirectly from ER.
  • Lysosomes are discovered by De Duve (1955); mainly found in animals but also in some plants like Neurospora.
  • In animals, epithelial cells of the intestine, kidney cells rich in lysosomes.

Functions

  • Intracellular digestion. They help in breaking down (digesting) large molecules of cell.
  • They work in defense against bacteria & virus.
  • During starvation, lysosomes act on their own cellular organelles & digest them. This result in cell death hence are called ‘suicidal bag’ or demolition squads means cell autolysis or autophagy.

Spherosomes

  • Single membrane bounded mainly in plants.
  • Its function is fat metabolism.

Microsome

  • Microsomes are the structures formed when cells are broken up in the laboratory.
  • Differential centrifugation can be used to separate them from other cellular debris.
  • They are used to imitate the activity of the endoplasmic reticulum in a test tube.
  • They are also used to perform experiments that require protein synthesis on a membrane thus aiding in understanding the process of protein formation on the endoplasmic reticulum.

Vacuole

  • Important structure in plant cell.
  • They may occupy upto 90% of the cell volume.
  • Single membrane bound and contain cell sap.
  • Function: Osmo-regulation of molecules.
  • Tonoplast is the membrane of vacuole.

Plasmodesmata

  • Found in plants only.
  • First observed and named by Strasburger (1903) in the form of cytoplasmic strands that connects the protoplast of adjacent cell.
  • Origin: from ER
  • Function: Provide metabolic contacts between cells e.g. companion cells.

Centrosome

  • Present near nucleus, present in all animal cells and also in Chlamydomonas, some fungi, Gymnosperms etc.
  • Two centrioles in one centrosome.
  • At the time of mitosis, move to opposite pole and produce astral rays.
  • The microtubules of the spindle originate from centrosome during mitosis in both plant and animal cells.

Ergastic Substances

  • Non-living cell inclusions e.g. starch, sugar, organic acid, fats, oils, pigments etc.

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