🐛 Pest Management Basics
Pest classification, control methods, biopesticides, neem products, pesticide safety, colour coding, IPM principles and components for CUET Agriculture
Pests are organisms that damage crops and reduce agricultural productivity. In India, insect pests cause significant losses to all major crops. Understanding how pests feed, what damage they cause, and how to control them sustainably is the foundation of plant protection — a critical subject for CUET Agriculture.
Classification of Insect Pests
Insect pests are classified in multiple ways. The two most important classifications are by feeding habit (which determines the type of control measure) and by damage pattern (which helps in field identification).
A. Based on Feeding Habit
The type of mouth parts an insect possesses determines how it feeds and, consequently, which pesticides are effective against it:
| Type | Mouth Parts | Feeding | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|
| Biting and chewing | Mandibulate (strong jaws that cut and chew) | Eat plant tissues — leaves, stems, roots, fruits | Stem borer, leaf caterpillar, grasshopper, beetle |
| Sucking | Haustellate (piercing-sucking — a needle-like stylet pierces the plant and sucks sap) | Suck plant phloem/xylem sap | Aphids, whiteflies, jassids, thrips, mealybugs |
| Boring | Modified biting (larvae bore into plant tissues) | Bore into stems, fruits, shoots — internal feeders | Stem borer (rice, sugarcane), fruit borer |
| Rasping | Asymmetric mandibles (one mandible scrapes, the other is vestigial) | Scrape plant surface and suck the oozing sap | Thrips |
IMPORTANT
Pro Content Locked
Upgrade to Pro to access this lesson and all other premium content.
₹99 charged monthly · Cancel anytime
- All Agriculture & Banking Courses
- AI Lesson Questions (100/day)
- AI Doubt Solver (50/day)
- Glows & Grows Feedback (30/day)
- AI Section Quiz (20/day)
- 22-Language Translation (100/day)
- Recall Questions (20/day)
- AI Quiz (15/day)
- AI Quiz Paper Analysis (100/day)
- AI Step-by-Step Explanations (100/day)
- Spaced Repetition Recall (FSRS)
- AI Tutor
- Immersive Text Questions
- Audio Lessons — Hindi & English
- Mock Tests & Previous Year Papers
- Summary & Mind Maps
- XP, Levels, Leaderboard & Badges
- Generate New Classrooms
- Voice AI Teacher (AgriDots Live)
- AI Revision Assistant
- Knowledge Gap Analysis
- Interactive Revision (LangGraph)
🔒 Secure via Razorpay · Cancel anytime · No hidden fees
Pests are organisms that damage crops and reduce agricultural productivity. In India, insect pests cause significant losses to all major crops. Understanding how pests feed, what damage they cause, and how to control them sustainably is the foundation of plant protection — a critical subject for CUET Agriculture.
Classification of Insect Pests
Insect pests are classified in multiple ways. The two most important classifications are by feeding habit (which determines the type of control measure) and by damage pattern (which helps in field identification).
A. Based on Feeding Habit
The type of mouth parts an insect possesses determines how it feeds and, consequently, which pesticides are effective against it:
| Type | Mouth Parts | Feeding | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|
| Biting and chewing | Mandibulate (strong jaws that cut and chew) | Eat plant tissues — leaves, stems, roots, fruits | Stem borer, leaf caterpillar, grasshopper, beetle |
| Sucking | Haustellate (piercing-sucking — a needle-like stylet pierces the plant and sucks sap) | Suck plant phloem/xylem sap | Aphids, whiteflies, jassids, thrips, mealybugs |
| Boring | Modified biting (larvae bore into plant tissues) | Bore into stems, fruits, shoots — internal feeders | Stem borer (rice, sugarcane), fruit borer |
| Rasping | Asymmetric mandibles (one mandible scrapes, the other is vestigial) | Scrape plant surface and suck the oozing sap | Thrips |
IMPORTANT
Why feeding habit matters for control: Insects with biting-chewing mouth parts ingest plant tissue, so they can be killed by stomach poisons (sprayed on plant surfaces) and Bt-based biopesticides (which must be eaten). Sucking insects feed on internal sap, so contact insecticides or systemic insecticides (which enter the plant's sap stream) are needed. This is why Bt cotton controls bollworms (biting) but NOT sucking pests (whitefly, aphids).
B. Based on Damage Pattern
Identifying the type of damage in the field helps determine which pest is responsible:
| Type | Description | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Defoliators | Feed on leaves — can strip plants bare | Tobacco caterpillar (Spodoptera), Semilooper, Bihar hairy caterpillar |
| Stem borers | Bore into stems creating tunnels that disrupt nutrient and water transport | Rice yellow stem borer, Sugarcane top borer |
| Fruit borers | Bore into fruits or pods, feeding on seeds and pulp inside | Helicoverpa armigera (gram pod borer), Earias (cotton spotted bollworm) |
| Root feeders | Feed on roots underground — often go unnoticed until severe damage occurs | White grub, root aphid, termites |
| Sap suckers | Suck phloem sap, weakening plants, transmitting viruses, and causing leaf curling/yellowing | Aphids, BPH (Brown Planthopper), whitefly, jassids |
| Gall formers | Cause abnormal growths (galls) on plant tissues where larvae develop inside | Gall midge (rice), gall fly |
| Storage pests | Damage stored grains in godowns — post-harvest losses | Rice weevil (Sitophilus), Khapra beetle (Trogoderma), pulse beetle |
Major Crop Pests for CUET
This table links each major crop to its key pests — a high-priority topic for the exam:
| Crop | Major Pests |
|---|---|
| Rice | Yellow stem borer, Brown planthopper (BPH), Gall midge, Leaf folder, Green leafhopper |
| Wheat | Termites, Aphids, Pink stem borer, Army worm |
| Maize | Stem borer, Fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda — invasive since 2018) |
| Cotton | American bollworm (Helicoverpa), Pink bollworm, Whitefly, Jassids, Aphids |
| Sugarcane | Top borer, Internode borer, Pyrilla, White grub, Termites |
| Pulses | Gram pod borer (Helicoverpa armigera), Pulse beetle (storage), Aphids |
| Mustard | Mustard aphid (Lipaphis erysimi), Painted bug, Sawfly |
| Groundnut | White grub, Aphids, Leaf miner, Red hairy caterpillar |
NOTE
Helicoverpa armigera (American bollworm / Gram pod borer) is India's most polyphagous (feeds on many crops) and most damaging pest. It attacks cotton, chickpea, pigeonpea, tomato, maize, and many other crops. Its wide host range and ability to develop insecticide resistance make it extremely difficult to manage.
Pest Control Methods
1. Cultural Control
Cultural control involves modifying farming practices to make the environment less favourable for pests:
- Crop rotation — Breaks the pest cycle by alternating host and non-host crops. A pest that builds up on one crop finds no food when a different crop is planted next season.
- Early/timely sowing — Avoids peak pest periods. For example, early sowing of mustard (before October 15) helps the crop escape the January-February aphid peak because it has already crossed the vulnerable flowering stage.
- Resistant varieties — Growing crop varieties with built-in pest resistance is the most economical control method. Examples: Bt cotton (bollworm resistance), BPH-resistant rice varieties.
- Trap cropping — Growing a highly attractive "trap" crop alongside the main crop to divert pests away. Example: planting marigold around chickpea fields attracts Helicoverpa moths to lay eggs on marigold instead of chickpea; planting mustard around cabbage attracts cabbage aphids away from the main crop.
- Clean cultivation — Removing crop residues and stubble eliminates hiding places and breeding sites for pests.
- Optimum spacing — Proper plant spacing ensures good air circulation, which reduces humidity-loving pests and diseases.
2. Mechanical/Physical Control
These methods physically trap, kill, or exclude pests:
- Light traps — Attract and kill nocturnal (night-flying) insects. A light source placed above a water tray draws moths, beetles, and other night-active pests.
- Pheromone traps — Use synthetic sex pheromones (chemical signals that female moths release to attract males) to lure and trap male moths. Used both for monitoring pest populations (to decide when to spray) and for mass trapping to reduce mating.
- Yellow sticky traps — Yellow-coloured adhesive sheets that attract and trap whiteflies and aphids (these insects are attracted to yellow colour).
- Hand picking — Physically removing large insects, egg masses, and infested plant parts. Practical for small fields and low pest densities.
- Bird perches — Placing T-shaped wooden perches in the field to attract insectivorous birds (like drongos and mynahs) that feed on caterpillars and other insects. A simple, zero-cost method.
3. Biological Control
Biological control uses natural enemies — predators, parasitoids, and pathogens — to keep pest populations in check. This is the most environmentally friendly approach.
| Bioagent | Type | Target Pest |
|---|---|---|
| Trichogramma spp. | Egg parasitoid (tiny wasp that lays its eggs inside pest eggs) | Stem borers, bollworms, fruit borers — the most widely used biocontrol agent in India |
| Chrysoperla carnea (Green lacewing) | Predator (larvae are voracious feeders) | Aphids, whiteflies, thrips, mealybugs |
| Coccinellid beetles (Ladybird beetle) | Predator (both adults and larvae eat pests) | Aphids — a single ladybird can eat hundreds of aphids |
| Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) | Microbial pathogen (bacterium that produces crystal proteins toxic to insect larvae) | Lepidopteran larvae (caterpillars) — the basis of Bt cotton and Bt sprays |
| NPV (Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus) | Viral pathogen (specific to target pest; harmless to other organisms) | Helicoverpa armigera, Spodoptera |
| Beauveria bassiana | Fungal pathogen (infects insects through their cuticle) | Various insects — white muscardine fungus |
| Trichoderma spp. | Antagonistic fungus (outcompetes and parasitizes other fungi) | Soil-borne plant pathogens (Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, Sclerotium) |
How Trichogramma Works — Understanding Egg Parasitoids
Trichogramma is a tiny wasp (less than 1 mm) that is mass-reared in laboratories on stored grain moth eggs and released in farmers' fields. The female Trichogramma searches for pest eggs (like those of stem borer or bollworm), inserts her own egg inside the pest egg, and her larva then consumes the pest embryo from inside. The pest never hatches — instead, a new Trichogramma adult emerges. This is why Trichogramma is most effective when released at the time of pest egg-laying.
Typical release rate: 50,000-100,000 Trichogramma per hectare, released as parasitized egg cards (small cardboard cards with parasitized eggs glued on them). This is the most widely practiced biocontrol method in Indian agriculture.
4. Chemical Control (Pesticides)
Chemical pesticides are classified by their chemical group, which determines their mode of action, toxicity, and persistence in the environment:
| Category | Examples | Target |
|---|---|---|
| Organochlorines | DDT, BHC/HCH, Endosulfan | Banned/restricted in India due to extreme persistence in the environment (they bioaccumulate in food chains). DDT was banned globally under the Stockholm Convention. |
| Organophosphates | Malathion, Monocrotophos, Chlorpyrifos | Broad-spectrum; moderate persistence. They inhibit the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, disrupting the nervous system. |
| Carbamates | Carbofuran, Carbaryl | Systemic action; often used as soil application (granules). Same mode of action as organophosphates but shorter duration. |
| Synthetic pyrethroids | Cypermethrin, Deltamethrin | Contact + stomach action; relatively low mammalian toxicity; fast knockdown effect. Derived from natural pyrethrum but synthesized for stability. |
| Neonicotinoids | Imidacloprid, Thiamethoxam | Systemic — absorbed by roots and translocated throughout the plant. Excellent for sucking pests. Seed treatment is common. Concerns about bee toxicity. |
| Newer molecules | Spinosad, Chlorantraniliprole (Rynaxypyr), Flubendiamide | Low toxicity to mammals and beneficial insects; IPM-compatible. These represent the future of chemical pest control. |
Biopesticides
Biopesticides are pest management agents derived from natural materials — living organisms, plant extracts, or minerals. They are safer for the environment, beneficial insects, and human health compared to synthetic pesticides.
| Type | Examples | Target |
|---|---|---|
| Microbial pesticides | Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis), NPV, Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium | Lepidoptera larvae (Bt), various insects (fungal) |
| Botanical pesticides | Neem (Azadirachtin), Pyrethrum, Rotenone, Tobacco extract (Nicotine) | Broad-spectrum; act as antifeedant (stops insects from eating), repellent, and growth disruptor |
| Biochemical pesticides | Pheromones, plant growth regulators | Monitoring, mating disruption — these modify pest behaviour rather than killing directly |
Neem-Based Products
Neem (Azadirachta indica) is India's most important botanical pesticide source and a cornerstone of IPM:
- Azadirachtin — The primary active ingredient extracted from neem seeds. It has multiple modes of action: antifeedant (makes food unpalatable), repellent (drives insects away), growth disruptor (prevents moulting), and oviposition deterrent (prevents egg-laying).
- Neem oil (3-5% spray) — Effective against sucking pests like aphids and whiteflies.
- Neem kernel extract (5%) — The most effective neem formulation for pest control.
- Safe for beneficial insects — neem products have minimal impact on predators and parasitoids because they primarily affect feeding insects, not those simply present on the plant.
- No residue problem — neem breaks down rapidly in the environment.
- India is the largest producer of neem in the world — neem trees are abundant across the country.
Pesticide Safety
Colour Coding of Pesticides (India)
In India, all pesticide containers carry a colour-coded triangle on the label indicating their toxicity level. This system helps even illiterate farmers understand the danger level:
| Colour | Toxicity Class | LD₅₀ (oral, rat) | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|
| Red | Extremely toxic | <50 mg/kg | Phorate, Methyl parathion, Aluminium phosphide |
| Yellow | Highly toxic | 50-500 mg/kg | Monocrotophos, Dichlorvos |
| Blue | Moderately toxic | 500-5000 mg/kg | Malathion, Endosulfan, Carbaryl |
| Green | Slightly toxic | >5000 mg/kg | Carbendazim, Mancozeb, Neem products |
WARNING
Red label = Extremely toxic — handle with extreme caution. Green label = Slightly toxic — safest category. For CUET, remember: Red → Yellow → Blue → Green (decreasing toxicity). The LD₅₀ (Lethal Dose 50) is the dose that kills 50% of test animals — the lower the LD₅₀, the more toxic the pesticide.
Safety Precautions
These are essential practices that every farmer and pesticide applicator must follow:
- Always read the label before use — it contains critical information about dosage, target pests, waiting period, and first aid
- Wear protective clothing — gloves, mask, full-sleeve clothes, and shoes
- Spray in the direction of wind so the spray mist moves away from you; avoid spraying in hot midday (increased evaporation and drift)
- Do not eat, drink, or smoke while spraying — avoid any hand-to-mouth contact
- Wash hands and face thoroughly with soap and water after spraying
- Dispose of empty containers safely — triple rinse, puncture (to prevent reuse for food/water), and bury
- Maintain the waiting period (the minimum time between the last spray and harvest) — this varies by pesticide and ensures residues decay to safe levels before food reaches consumers
- Store pesticides in original containers, in a locked room, away from food, water, and children
Pesticide Residues
Pesticide residues in food are a growing public health concern. Two key regulatory concepts:
- MRL (Maximum Residue Limit) — The maximum permissible level of pesticide residue allowed in food at the time of sale. Exceeding MRL means the food is considered unsafe. Set by FSSAI (Food Safety and Standards Authority of India) nationally and by Codex Alimentarius (FAO/WHO joint body) internationally.
- PHI (Pre-Harvest Interval) — The minimum number of days that must pass between the last pesticide spray and harvest. This ensures adequate time for the pesticide to degrade to levels below MRL. Different pesticides have different PHIs (e.g., malathion: 7 days; monocrotophos: 21+ days).
Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
IPM is a sustainable pest management approach that combines all available pest control methods to keep pest populations below the Economic Threshold Level (ETL) while minimizing damage to the environment, human health, and beneficial organisms. Chemical pesticides are used only as a last resort, not as the first response.
Principles of IPM
- Prevention — Using resistant varieties, crop rotation, and sanitation to prevent pest problems from developing
- Observation/Monitoring — Regular field scouting, pheromone traps, and light traps to track pest populations. Control decisions are based on data, not calendar spraying.
- Economic Threshold Level (ETL) — Apply control measures only when the pest reaches ETL. Below ETL, the cost of control exceeds the value of crop saved, so spraying would be uneconomical.
- Combination of methods — Cultural + Mechanical + Biological + Chemical (as last resort). No single method is sufficient.
- Minimal chemical use — When pesticides are needed, use selective, need-based application rather than blanket spraying of broad-spectrum insecticides.
Key Concepts
These three terms define the economic framework of IPM and are frequently tested:
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Economic Injury Level (EIL) | The pest density at which the damage caused equals the cost of control. Above EIL, the pest causes losses greater than what it costs to control it. |
| Economic Threshold Level (ETL) | The pest density at which control measures should be initiated. ETL is always set below EIL — you act before reaching the point of economic injury, because there is a time lag between applying control and achieving results. |
| General Equilibrium Position (GEP) | The average pest density over a long period in the absence of control measures — the natural "resting level" of the pest population. |
IMPORTANT
ETL is ALWAYS below EIL — this is a key exam concept. The logic is simple: you must start control before the pest reaches the damage threshold (EIL), because by the time you spray, transport pesticide, and it takes effect, the pest population will continue to grow. Starting at ETL gives you a buffer zone.
IPM Components
| Component | Examples |
|---|---|
| Host plant resistance | Bt cotton, BPH-resistant rice, pod borer-resistant chickpea |
| Cultural practices | Trap cropping, crop rotation, timely sowing, clean cultivation |
| Mechanical control | Pheromone traps, light traps, hand picking, bird perches |
| Biological control | Trichogramma, Chrysoperla, Bt sprays, NPV |
| Chemical control | Need-based; selective pesticides; as last resort |
| Biopesticides | Neem formulations, Bt formulations, NPV |
IPM in India
India has a structured institutional framework for promoting IPM:
- National IPM Centre functions under the Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine and Storage (DPPQS) — the central government body responsible for plant protection policy
- Central Integrated Pest Management Centres (CIPMCs) — 35 centres across India that produce and supply biocontrol agents, train farmers, and demonstrate IPM technologies
- Farmers' Field Schools (FFS) — A participatory training approach where farmers learn IPM practices through hands-on, season-long learning in their own fields
- National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) promotes IPM as part of sustainable farming practices
Additional Herbicide Application Notes
Droplet Size for Herbicide Application
Herbicide sprays require larger droplet size (100-300 microns) compared to insecticides (10-150 microns). Larger droplets ensure proper coverage on weed foliage and reduce drift — when tiny droplets float in the air and land on non-target crops, causing damage.
Herbicide Application Equipment
Choosing the right nozzle is critical for effective pesticide application:
| Equipment | Best For |
|---|---|
| Flat fan nozzle | Herbicide application — produces a uniform, fan-shaped spray pattern ideal for even coverage on soil or weed foliage |
| Hollow cone nozzle | Insecticides/fungicides — produces fine droplets in a hollow cone pattern for penetrating crop canopy |
| Solid cone nozzle | Soil drenching — delivers high volume to saturate the soil |
Weedicide Application Safety
Herbicides/weedicides are designed specifically to kill plants — this means they can also damage crops if misapplied. Rachel Carson's book Silent Spring (1962) raised global awareness about the harmful effects of all pesticides (including herbicides) on the environment, leading to the modern environmental movement.
Knapsack Sprayer for Herbicide Application
- For herbicide application, always use a flat fan nozzle — it gives uniform band/broadcast coverage essential for soil-applied and foliar herbicides
- Maintain low pressure to avoid drift — high pressure creates fine droplets that float in air
- Spray in early morning or evening when wind is calm to minimize drift to neighbouring fields
- Never use the same sprayer for insecticide and herbicide without thorough cleaning — cross-contamination with herbicide residues can kill crops in the next application
Spray Droplet Sizes
| Type | Droplet Size (microns) | Purpose |
|---|---|---|
| Coarse spray | >400 | Soil-applied herbicides — large droplets settle quickly on soil |
| Medium spray | 201-400 | Foliar herbicides — good coverage with minimal drift |
| Fine spray | 101-200 | Not recommended for herbicides — high drift risk |
Key Points for CUET
Quick Revision — Must-Remember Facts
- Trichogramma: Most widely used biocontrol agent in India — an egg parasitoid wasp
- Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis): Most important microbial biopesticide — produces crystal proteins toxic to caterpillars
- Helicoverpa armigera: Most polyphagous and damaging pest in India — attacks cotton, chickpea, pigeonpea, tomato
- Fall armyworm (S. frugiperda): Invasive pest in India since 2018; major threat to maize
- Red label = Extremely toxic pesticide; Green label = Slightly toxic
- IPM = Keep pests below ETL using combination of all methods; chemicals as last resort
- ETL is always below EIL — act before economic injury occurs
- India's pesticide consumption pattern: Insecticides > Herbicides > Fungicides
- Flat fan nozzle for herbicide application; Hollow cone nozzle for insecticides
- Neem (Azadirachtin) = antifeedant + repellent + growth disruptor; safe for beneficial insects
- MRL = Maximum Residue Limit (set by FSSAI/Codex); PHI = Pre-Harvest Interval
- 35 CIPMCs across India for promoting IPM
- Yellow sticky traps for whiteflies/aphids; Pheromone traps for monitoring moths
- Silent Spring by Rachel Carson (1962) — landmark book on pesticide environmental damage
Summary Cheat Sheet
| Concept / Topic | Key Details / Explanation |
|---|---|
| Pests | Organisms that damage crops and reduce agricultural productivity |
| Biting and chewing | Mandibulate mouth parts; eat plant tissues; controlled by stomach poisons + Bt; e.g., stem borer, caterpillar, grasshopper |
| Sucking | Haustellate (piercing-sucking); suck phloem/xylem sap; need contact/systemic insecticides; e.g., aphids, whiteflies, jassids, mealybugs |
| Boring | Modified biting; larvae bore into stems/fruits (internal feeders); e.g., stem borer, fruit borer |
| Rasping | Asymmetric mandibles; scrape surface + suck sap; e.g., thrips |
| Bt cotton limitation | Controls bollworms (biting) but NOT sucking pests (whitefly, aphids) |
| Defoliators | Feed on leaves; Spodoptera (tobacco caterpillar), Semilooper |
| Stem borers | Bore into stems; Rice yellow stem borer, Sugarcane top borer |
| Sap suckers | Suck phloem; Aphids, BPH, whitefly, jassids |
| Storage pests | Damage stored grains; Rice weevil (Sitophilus), Khapra beetle (Trogoderma), pulse beetle |
| Helicoverpa armigera | India's most polyphagous and damaging pest; attacks cotton, chickpea, pigeonpea, tomato, maize |
| Fall armyworm | Spodoptera frugiperda; invasive since 2018; major threat to maize |
| Rice pests | Yellow stem borer, BPH (Brown planthopper), Gall midge, Leaf folder, Green leafhopper |
| Cotton pests | American bollworm (Helicoverpa), Pink bollworm, Whitefly, Jassids, Aphids |
| Mustard pests | Mustard aphid (Lipaphis erysimi), Painted bug, Sawfly |
| Cultural control | Crop rotation, early/timely sowing, resistant varieties, trap cropping (marigold for Helicoverpa), clean cultivation |
| Light traps | Attract + kill nocturnal insects |
| Pheromone traps | Synthetic sex pheromones; lure male moths; for monitoring + mass trapping |
| Yellow sticky traps | Attract whiteflies and aphids (attracted to yellow) |
| Trichogramma | Most widely used biocontrol agent in India; egg parasitoid wasp (<1 mm); release 50,000-100,000/ha |
| Chrysoperla carnea | Green lacewing; predator of aphids, whiteflies, thrips, mealybugs |
| Coccinellid beetles | Ladybird beetle; predator of aphids |
| Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) | Microbial pathogen; crystal proteins toxic to lepidopteran larvae; basis of Bt cotton |
| NPV | Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus; specific to target pest; for Helicoverpa, Spodoptera |
| Beauveria bassiana | Fungal pathogen of insects; white muscardine fungus |
| Trichoderma | Antagonistic fungus against soil-borne pathogens (Fusarium, Rhizoctonia) |
| Organochlorines | DDT, BHC, Endosulfan — banned/restricted in India; extreme persistence, bioaccumulation |
| Organophosphates | Malathion, Monocrotophos, Chlorpyrifos; inhibit acetylcholinesterase |
| Neonicotinoids | Imidacloprid, Thiamethoxam; systemic; excellent for sucking pests; bee toxicity concerns |
| Azadirachtin (Neem) | Primary active ingredient; antifeedant + repellent + growth disruptor + oviposition deterrent; safe for beneficial insects |
| Neem kernel extract (5%) | Most effective neem formulation |
| India + Neem | India is the largest producer of neem in the world |
| Pesticide colour coding | Red = Extremely toxic (LD₅₀ <50); Yellow = Highly toxic; Blue = Moderately toxic; Green = Slightly toxic (LD₅₀ >5000) |
| MRL | Maximum Residue Limit — max permissible pesticide residue in food; set by FSSAI (India) / Codex Alimentarius (international) |
| PHI | Pre-Harvest Interval — minimum days between last spray and harvest |
| IPM | Sustainable approach; keep pests below ETL; chemicals as last resort |
| EIL | Economic Injury Level — pest density where damage = cost of control |
| ETL | Economic Threshold Level — always below EIL; initiate control here (buffer for time lag) |
| GEP | General Equilibrium Position — average pest density without control |
| CIPMCs | 35 centres across India for promoting IPM; under DPPQS |
| Silent Spring (1962) | By Rachel Carson; raised awareness about pesticide environmental damage |
| Flat fan nozzle | Best for herbicide application (uniform coverage) |
| Hollow cone nozzle | Best for insecticides/fungicides (fine droplets, canopy penetration) |
| Herbicide droplet size | 100-300 microns (larger than insecticide droplets to reduce drift) |
Lesson Doubts
Ask questions, get expert answers