🥥 Plantation Crops — Coconut, Arecanut, Rubber, Coffee, Tea, Cocoa & Cashew
Study coconut, arecanut, rubber, coffee, tea, cocoa and cashew for CUET Agriculture. Planting, processing, tapping and fermentation covered.
Plantation crops are perennial crops grown on large estates (plantations) with long gestation periods -- meaning they take several years from planting to first economic yield. These crops are typically grown in tropical and subtropical regions, require significant initial investment, and provide returns over many decades. India is the world's largest producer, consumer, and exporter of spices. The Spice Board of India is headquartered in Kochi, Kerala.
Key Institutions
| Institution | Full Name | Location |
|---|---|---|
| CPCRI | Central Plantation Crops Research Institute | Kasaragod (Kerala) |
| DCCD | Directorate of Cashew and Coconut Development | Kochi (Kerala) |
| DCR | Directorate of Cashew Research | Puttur (Karnataka) |
| DASD | Directorate of Arecanut and Spices Development | Calicut (Kerala) |
| IISR | Indian Institute of Spices Research | Calicut (Kerala) |
| Spice Board | Spice Board of India | Kochi (Kerala) |
NOTE
Notice that most plantation crop and spice research institutions are located in Kerala and Karnataka -- this reflects the historical concentration of these crops in India's southwestern states where tropical climate and adequate rainfall provide ideal growing conditions.
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Plantation crops are perennial crops grown on large estates (plantations) with long gestation periods -- meaning they take several years from planting to first economic yield. These crops are typically grown in tropical and subtropical regions, require significant initial investment, and provide returns over many decades. India is the world's largest producer, consumer, and exporter of spices. The Spice Board of India is headquartered in Kochi, Kerala.
Key Institutions
| Institution | Full Name | Location |
|---|---|---|
| CPCRI | Central Plantation Crops Research Institute | Kasaragod (Kerala) |
| DCCD | Directorate of Cashew and Coconut Development | Kochi (Kerala) |
| DCR | Directorate of Cashew Research | Puttur (Karnataka) |
| DASD | Directorate of Arecanut and Spices Development | Calicut (Kerala) |
| IISR | Indian Institute of Spices Research | Calicut (Kerala) |
| Spice Board | Spice Board of India | Kochi (Kerala) |
NOTE
Notice that most plantation crop and spice research institutions are located in Kerala and Karnataka -- this reflects the historical concentration of these crops in India's southwestern states where tropical climate and adequate rainfall provide ideal growing conditions.
PART A: PLANTATION CROPS
1. Coconut (Cocos nucifera)
Coconut (Cocos nucifera) -- Source: Wikimedia Commons (CC)
- Family: Arecaceae (Palmae)
- Chromosome number: 2n = 32
- Origin: Southeast Asia / Indo-Malayan region
- Fruit type: Drupe (fibrous drupe) -- the coconut fruit has three layers: exocarp (outer skin), mesocarp (fibrous husk/coir), and endocarp (hard shell)
- Edible part: Endosperm (kernel/copra) -- both the solid white meat and the liquid coconut water are forms of endosperm
- Other name: Kalpavriksha (Tree of Life); Tree of Heaven -- named so because every part of the coconut palm has a use
General Information
- Inflorescence: Spadix (monoecious -- male and female flowers on same spadix). The spadix emerges from a protective sheath called a spathe.
- Male:Female flower ratio = 15:1 -- this means there are 15 male flowers for every one female flower on each spadix
- Pollination: Cross-pollination (by wind -- anemophilous) -- the light pollen is carried by wind from male to female flowers
- Protandry -- male flowers mature before female flowers, which promotes cross-pollination and genetic diversity
- India ranks 1st in coconut productivity, 3rd in area and production (after Indonesia and Philippines)
- Leading state: Kerala (highest area); Tamil Nadu & Karnataka also major producers
- Copra -- dried coconut kernel; contains 65-72% oil. Copra is the primary commercial product of coconut and is the raw material for coconut oil extraction.
- Coir -- fibre from coconut husk; used for ropes, mats, mattresses, and erosion control
Why is coconut called Kalpavriksha?
The name **Kalpavriksha** (wish-fulfilling tree) reflects the extraordinary versatility of the coconut palm. Virtually every part is useful: the **trunk** for timber and poles, **leaves** for thatching and weaving, **inflorescence sap (toddy/neera)** for beverages, **fruit husk** for coir fibre, **shell** for crafts and activated charcoal, **kernel** for oil, food, and desiccated coconut, **coconut water** as a refreshing drink, and **roots** for traditional medicine. No other single tree provides so many diverse products, which is why it earned the title "Tree of Life."Climate and Soil
- Climate: Tropical; humid; temperature 25-30°C
- Rainfall: 1500-2500 mm, well-distributed throughout the year
- Soil: Sandy loam, laterite; pH 5.0-8.0 -- coconut is quite adaptable to different soil types
- Coconut is salt-tolerant (can grow in coastal areas) -- this unique characteristic allows it to thrive along coastlines where other crops fail
Propagation
- By seed (seednut): Primary method -- coconut cannot be vegetatively propagated commercially because there is only one growing point (terminal bud)
- Selected mother palms with high yield; 9-12 month old seednuts used for planting
- Nursery raised seedlings transplanted at 1-2 years age
- Spacing: 7.5 x 7.5 m (triangular) -- 175 palms/ha
- Pit size: 1 x 1 x 1 m
Important Varieties
| Type | Varieties |
|---|---|
| Tall | West Coast Tall (WCT), East Coast Tall (ECT), Laccadive Ordinary, Tiptur Tall, Andaman Ordinary |
| Dwarf | Chowghat Orange Dwarf (COD), Chowghat Green Dwarf (CGD), Malayan Yellow Dwarf, Gangabondam |
| Hybrid | Chandrasankara (COD x WCT), Kerasankara (WCT x COD), Lakshaganga, VPM-3 |
- Dwarf varieties: Early bearing (3-4 years); smaller palms; self-pollinating -- their shorter stature makes harvesting easier
- Tall varieties: Late bearing (6-8 years); tall palms; cross-pollinating -- they live longer (80-100 years) and are more resilient
TIP
Remember the naming logic of coconut hybrids: Chandrasankara = COD x WCT (female x male). The female parent name comes first. Kerasankara = WCT x COD reverses the cross.
Important Products
| Product | Details |
|---|---|
| Copra | Dried kernel; 65-72% oil -- the main commercial product |
| Coconut oil | Used in cooking, cosmetics, soap manufacturing |
| Coir | Fibre from husk; ropes, mats, geotextiles |
| Toddy / Neera | Fresh sap from spadix; neera is unfermented (sweet), toddy is fermented (alcoholic) |
| Coconut water | From tender coconut; natural electrolyte drink |
| Desiccated coconut | Dried, shredded kernel; used in confectionery |
| Virgin coconut oil (VCO) | Cold-pressed from fresh kernel; premium health product |
Diseases
| Disease | Causal Organism | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Bud rot | Phytophthora palmivora | Most serious disease; attacks the terminal bud (only growing point), killing the palm |
| Root wilt | Phytoplasma (Mycoplasma-like organism) | Called "Kerala disease" because it is predominantly found in Kerala |
| Leaf blight | Pestalotia palmarum | Affects leaves, reducing photosynthesis |
| Stem bleeding | Thielaviopsis paradoxa | Dark brown liquid oozes from cracks in the trunk |
Pests
- Rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros) -- most destructive pest; bores into the crown and damages growing point
- Red palm weevil (Rhynchophorus ferrugineus) -- larvae bore into the trunk, causing internal damage
- Coconut mite (Aceria guerreronis) -- attacks young nuts, causing surface scarring and reduced copra yield
- Black-headed caterpillar (Opisina arenosella) -- defoliates palms by feeding on leaflets
2. Arecanut / Supari (Areca catechu)
Arecanut / Supari (Areca catechu) -- Source: Wikimedia Commons (CC)
- Family: Arecaceae (Palmae)
- Chromosome number: 2n = 32
- Origin: Malaysia / Philippines
- Fruit type: Drupe (fibrous)
- Edible part: Seed (endosperm -- the nut)
- Active principle: Arecoline (alkaloid) -- a mild central nervous system stimulant that gives the characteristic "kick" when chewing betel nut
General Information
- Used for pan masala, gutka, betel quid chewing -- arecanut is traditionally chewed with betel leaf (Piper betle), lime paste, and spices
- India is the largest producer of arecanut in the world
- Leading state: Karnataka (highest production); Kerala, Assam also major producers
- DASD (Directorate of Arecanut and Spices Development) -- Calicut
Propagation and Planting
- Propagation: Seed (sprout selected from high-yielding palms) -- like coconut, arecanut is propagated only through seeds
- Spacing: 2.7 x 2.7 m
- Bearing age: 5-6 years
Important Varieties
| Type | Varieties |
|---|---|
| Tall | Mangala, Sumangala, Sreemangala, South Canara, Mohitnagar |
| Dwarf | Hirehalli Dwarf |
Diseases
| Disease | Causal Organism |
|---|---|
| Koleroga / Mahali | Phytophthora arecae (fruit rot) -- the most devastating disease; immature nuts fall during monsoon |
| Yellow leaf disease | Phytoplasma -- causes yellowing and eventual death of palms |
| Bud rot | Phytophthora palmivora |
3. Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis)
Rubber Tree (Hevea brasiliensis) -- Source: Wikimedia Commons (CC)
- Family: Euphorbiaceae
- Chromosome number: 2n = 36
- Origin: Amazon basin, Brazil (South America) -- rubber was originally collected from wild trees in the Amazon rainforest
- Product: Natural rubber (latex) from bark tapping -- the milky white latex is a suspension of rubber particles in water
- Active compound: cis-1,4-Polyisoprene -- the polymer that gives rubber its unique elastic properties
General Information
- Introduced in India in 1876 by Sir Henry Wickham -- he smuggled rubber seeds out of Brazil, and they were first planted in Kerala's tropical climate
- Leading state: Kerala (accounts for ~85% production) -- the warm, humid climate of Kerala is ideal for rubber
- Rubber Board -- Kottayam, Kerala (statutory body overseeing the rubber industry)
- RRII -- Rubber Research Institute of India -- Kottayam, Kerala
- India ranks 4th in world rubber production (after Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam)
Propagation
- Bud grafting (Green budding / Brown budding) -- commercial method; a bud patch from a high-yielding clone is grafted onto a seedling rootstock
- Seedlings used as rootstock
- Spacing: 5 x 5 m or 4.8 x 4.8 m
- Tapping age: 6-7 years (when girth reaches 50 cm at 150 cm height) -- this girth requirement ensures the tree has enough bark thickness for safe tapping
Important Clones (Varieties)
- RRII 105, RRII 208, RRII 118
- Tjir-1, PB-86, GT-1
- BD-5, BD-10
Tapping
Tapping is the process of making a controlled cut in the bark to allow latex to flow out. It is a skilled operation that must not damage the cambium layer beneath.
- Method: Herring-bone pattern; S/2 d/2 (half spiral, alternate daily) -- this means half the trunk circumference is tapped, and tapping is done every other day to allow bark renewal
- Latex yield: 20-25 g dry rubber per tapping
- Annual yield: 1500-2000 kg dry rubber/ha/year
- Tapping done early morning (5-7 AM) when latex flow is maximum -- turgor pressure in the bark is highest at dawn, which drives latex exudation
What does S/2 d/2 mean in rubber tapping?
The notation **S/2 d/2** is an internationally standardized system for describing tapping intensity: - **S/2** = Half spiral -- the tapping cut goes around half (180°) of the trunk circumference - **d/2** = Tapping frequency is every 2 days (alternate day tapping) - Other systems include S/2 d/3 (every 3 days -- lower intensity) or S/2 d/1 (daily -- higher intensity, but causes bark fatigue) The S/2 d/2 system is considered optimal as it balances yield with bark renewal, ensuring the tree can be tapped productively for 25-30 years.Diseases
| Disease | Causal Organism |
|---|---|
| Abnormal leaf fall | Phytophthora spp. -- causes premature defoliation during monsoon |
| Powdery mildew | Oidium heveae -- white powdery coating on young leaves |
| Pink disease | Corticium salmonicolor -- pink encrustation on branches |
| Brown bast | Physiological disorder (bark dryness) -- not caused by a pathogen; results from over-tapping |
4. Coffee (Coffea spp.)
Coffee (Coffea spp.) -- Source: Wikimedia Commons (CC)
- Family: Rubiaceae
- Origin: Ethiopia (Kaffa province, Africa) -- the name "coffee" is believed to derive from "Kaffa"
- Fruit type: Berry (drupe)
- India ranks 6th in world coffee production
Types of Coffee
The two main commercial species differ fundamentally in their genetics, flavour, and growing requirements:
| Type | Species | Features |
|---|---|---|
| Arabica | Coffea arabica | 2n = 44 (allotetraploid); self-pollinating; mild, nuanced flavour; shade-loving; grown at higher altitude (900-1500 m); lower caffeine (0.8-1.4%) |
| Robusta | Coffea canephora | 2n = 22 (diploid); cross-pollinating; strong/bitter flavour; tolerant to pests and diseases; lower altitude; higher caffeine (1.7-4%) |
| Liberica | Coffea liberica | Large leaves & berries; rarely grown commercially |
TIP
For CUET, remember: Arabica = 2n=44 (tetraploid), self-pollinated, mild flavour, less caffeine. Robusta = 2n=22 (diploid), cross-pollinated, strong flavour, more caffeine. The chromosome numbers and pollination types are commonly tested.
General Information
- Leading state: Karnataka (Coorg/Kodagu, Chikmagalur, Hassan districts -- ~70% of India's production)
- Coffee Board -- Bengaluru, Karnataka
- Shade trees: Silver Oak (Grevillea robusta), Erythrina spp. -- coffee is a shade-loving crop and is grown under a canopy of taller trees
- Coffee is called the "Wine of Arabia" -- reflecting its Arabian trade route history
Propagation
- Seed (for rootstock)
- Grafting -- for commercial varieties to combine desired traits with strong rootstocks
- Spacing: 2 x 2 m (Arabica -- closer because smaller); 3 x 3 m (Robusta -- wider because more vigorous)
Processing
- Wet/Washed method -- pulping, fermentation, washing (produces Arabica -- plantation coffee). This method removes the fruit pulp mechanically, then ferments the mucilage layer, producing a cleaner, brighter cup.
- Dry method -- sun drying of whole berries (produces cherry/natural coffee). The entire berry is dried in the sun, giving a fruitier, more complex flavour.
Important Diseases
| Disease | Causal Organism | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Coffee rust (most devastating) | Hemileia vastatrix | Orange pustules on leaves; caused the "coffee crisis" in Sri Lanka in the 1860s |
| Black rot | Koleroga noxia | During monsoon; affects leaves and berries |
| Coffee berry disease | Colletotrichum kahawae | Affects developing berries |
5. Tea (Camellia sinensis)
Tea (Camellia sinensis) -- Source: Wikimedia Commons (CC)
- Family: Theaceae
- Chromosome number: 2n = 30
- Origin: Southeast Asia (China / Assam, India) -- tea has two independent centres of origin
- Edible part: Young leaves ("2 leaves and a bud") -- this is the standard plucking unit, called a flush
Types of Tea
| Type | Variety | Features |
|---|---|---|
| China type | C. sinensis var. sinensis | Small leaves; cold-tolerant; lighter, more delicate flavour |
| Assam type | C. sinensis var. assamica | Large leaves; vigorous growth; strong, malty flavour; most cultivated in India |
| Cambod type | C. sinensis var. assamica subsp. lasiocalyx | Intermediate characteristics |
General Information
- India is the 2nd largest producer of tea (after China) and was historically the largest
- Leading state: Assam (highest production); West Bengal (Darjeeling -- famous for "muscatel" flavour), Tamil Nadu, Kerala
- Tea Board -- Kolkata
- Active compound: Caffeine (2-4%), Tannins (responsible for astringency), Theanine (amino acid providing umami flavour and calming effect)
- Plucking standard: "Two leaves and a bud" -- called flush. This is the youngest, most tender growth that produces the highest quality tea.
Propagation
- Vegetative: Single node/leaf cuttings (most common commercial method) -- ensures all plants in a garden are genetically identical (clonal)
- Clonal propagation preferred for uniform quality -- a single high-quality mother bush can produce thousands of identical plants
- Spacing: 1.2 x 0.6 m (single hedge); 1.35 x 0.75 m (double hedge)
Types of Processed Tea
The type of tea is determined by the degree of oxidation (fermentation) during processing:
| Type | Processing |
|---|---|
| Black tea | Full fermentation (oxidation) -- most consumed worldwide; the leaves are withered, rolled, fully oxidized, and dried |
| Green tea | No fermentation -- steamed/pan-fired immediately after plucking to inactivate oxidase enzymes, preserving green colour and catechins |
| Oolong tea | Partial fermentation -- intermediate between black and green; complex flavour profile |
| White tea | Minimal processing -- young leaves and buds with minimal handling; the most delicate type |
IMPORTANT
All four types of tea come from the same plant (Camellia sinensis). The difference lies entirely in processing. Green tea retains more antioxidants (catechins) because fermentation is skipped. Black tea develops more colour and body through full oxidation.
Diseases
| Disease | Causal Organism |
|---|---|
| Blister blight | Exobasidium vexans (most important disease of tea) |
| Red rust | Cephaleuros virescens (algal disease -- one of the few plant diseases caused by an alga) |
| Grey blight | Pestalotia theae |
Pests
- Tea mosquito bug (Helopeltis theivora) -- most destructive pest; punctures young leaves, causing necrotic spots
- Red spider mite -- causes bronzing of leaves
- Tea tortrix -- caterpillar that rolls and feeds on leaves
6. Cocoa (Theobroma cacao)
Cocoa (Theobroma cacao) -- Source: Wikimedia Commons (CC)
- Family: Sterculiaceae (Malvaceae)
- Chromosome number: 2n = 20
- Origin: Central & South America (Amazon basin)
- Other name: Food of Gods (Theobroma literally translates to "Food of God" in Greek -- theos = god, broma = food)
General Information
- Used for making chocolate, cocoa butter, cocoa powder -- the fermented and roasted seeds (cocoa beans) are the raw material
- India: Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh are major producers
- Shade-loving -- grown under coconut/arecanut plantations as an intercrop, making efficient use of plantation space
- Pollination: By midges (tiny flies) -- Forcipomyia spp. These tiny insects are the only effective pollinators of cocoa, making them essential for cocoa production.
- Cauliflory -- flowers arise directly on the trunk/older branches rather than at branch tips. This unusual feature means cocoa pods hang directly from the main stem.
What is cauliflory?
**Cauliflory** is the botanical phenomenon where flowers (and subsequently fruits) emerge directly from the main trunk or older woody branches rather than from new growth at branch tips. In cocoa, small pink-white flowers cluster directly on the trunk bark. Only about 1-5% of these flowers develop into mature pods. Each pod contains 20-50 cocoa beans surrounded by sweet white pulp. Other examples of cauliflorous plants include jackfruit and cannon ball tree.Propagation
- Seed, Budding, Grafting -- all three methods are used; vegetative propagation ensures clonal uniformity
- Spacing: 3 x 3 m (under shade)
7. Cashew (Anacardium occidentale)
Cashew (Anacardium occidentale) -- Source: Wikimedia Commons (CC)
- Family: Anacardiaceae
- Chromosome number: 2n = 42
- Origin: Brazil (South America) -- brought to India by the Portuguese in the 16th century
- Fruit type: Nut (true fruit) + Cashew apple (false fruit -- swollen pedicel/receptacle). The kidney-shaped nut hanging below the apple is the actual fruit.
- Other names: Dollar Earning Crop (because of its high export value), Gold Mine of Wasteland (grows well on poor, degraded soils)
IMPORTANT
Cashew has an unusual fruit structure. The cashew nut (kidney-shaped, at the bottom) is the true fruit containing the edible kernel. The cashew apple (pear-shaped, fleshy, above the nut) is actually the false fruit -- a swollen receptacle/pedicel. The nut shell contains CNSL (Cashew Nut Shell Liquid), a toxic industrial chemical.
General Information
- India is the largest processor and exporter of cashew in the world -- India imports raw cashew from Africa and processes it for re-export
- India ranks 3rd in raw cashew production (after Vietnam and Ivory Coast)
- Leading state: Maharashtra (largest area); Kerala, Goa, Karnataka
- DCR -- Directorate of Cashew Research -- Puttur (Karnataka)
- DCCD -- Directorate of Cashew and Coconut Development -- Kochi
Propagation
- Softwood grafting -- most common commercial method; gives true-to-type plants that begin bearing in 3-4 years
- Air layering also used
- Spacing: 8 x 8 m (or 7 x 7 m for HDP -- High Density Planting)
Important Varieties
| Variety | Developed by | Features |
|---|---|---|
| Vengurla-1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8 | Vengurla (Maharashtra) | Most popular commercial varieties |
| BPP-1 to BPP-8 | Bapatla (AP) | - |
| Ullal-1, 2, 3, 4 | DCR, Puttur | - |
| Dhana, Priyanka | - | High yielding |
| Goa-1 | Goa | - |
Products
| Product | Details |
|---|---|
| Cashew nut | Edible kernel (true fruit); exported worldwide as a premium nut |
| Cashew apple | Eaten fresh or used for feni (traditional alcoholic drink in Goa); also made into juice and jam |
| CNSL | Cashew Nut Shell Liquid -- industrial applications (brake linings, paints, resins, waterproofing). Contains cardanol and anacardic acid. |
Diseases
| Disease | Causal Organism |
|---|---|
| Die-back | Lasiodiplodia theobromae |
| Leaf blight | Pestalotia spp. |
Pests
- Tea mosquito bug (Helopeltis antonii) -- most serious pest of cashew; causes necrotic lesions on tender shoots and developing nuts
- Stem and root borer -- larvae bore into wood, weakening the tree
- Cashew shoot and blossom webber -- webs together shoots and flowers, feeding on them
Quick Comparison Table -- Plantation Crops
| Feature | Coconut | Arecanut | Rubber | Coffee | Tea | Cashew |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Family | Arecaceae | Arecaceae | Euphorbiaceae | Rubiaceae | Theaceae | Anacardiaceae |
| Origin | SE Asia | Malaysia | Brazil | Ethiopia | China/Assam | Brazil |
| 2n | 32 | 32 | 36 | 44/22 | 30 | 42 |
| Product | Copra/Oil | Nut | Latex | Beans | Leaves | Nut |
| Top state | Kerala | Karnataka | Kerala | Karnataka | Assam | Maharashtra |
| Propagation | Seed | Seed | Bud grafting | Grafting/Seed | Cuttings | Softwood grafting |
Summary Cheat Sheet
| Concept / Topic | Key Details / Explanation |
|---|---|
| CPCRI | Central Plantation Crops Research Institute — Kasaragod (Kerala) |
| Coconut — family & basics | Arecaceae; 2n = 32; Origin: SE Asia; fruit = Drupe; edible part = Endosperm; "Kalpavriksha" |
| Coconut — inflorescence | Spadix (monoecious); male:female ratio 15:1; protandrous; wind-pollinated |
| Coconut — copra | Dried kernel; 65-72% oil; India ranks 1st in productivity, 3rd in production |
| Coconut — propagation | Seed (seednut); spacing 7.5 × 7.5 m (175 palms/ha); dwarf bear in 3-4 years, tall in 6-8 years |
| Coconut — hybrid | Chandrasankara (COD × WCT); Kerasankara (WCT × COD) |
| Coconut — diseases | Bud rot (Phytophthora palmivora) = most serious; Root wilt = "Kerala disease" |
| Coconut — pest | Rhinoceros beetle = most destructive |
| Arecanut — basics | Arecaceae; 2n = 32; Arecoline (alkaloid); India = largest producer; Karnataka leads |
| Arecanut — disease | Koleroga/Mahali (Phytophthora arecae) = most devastating |
| Rubber — family & basics | Euphorbiaceae; 2n = 36; Origin: Brazil; product = latex; compound = cis-1,4-Polyisoprene |
| Rubber — tapping | S/2 d/2 (half spiral, alternate day); tapping age 6-7 years (50 cm girth); yield 1500-2000 kg/ha/year |
| Rubber — production | Kerala = ~85% of India's production; RRII — Kottayam, Kerala |
| Coffee — types | Arabica: 2n=44, self-pollinated, mild, less caffeine Robusta: 2n=22, cross-pollinated, strong, more caffeine |
| Coffee — production | Karnataka = ~70% of India's production; "Wine of Arabia"; Coffee Board — Bengaluru |
| Coffee — disease | Coffee rust (Hemileia vastatrix) = most devastating |
| Tea — basics | Theaceae; 2n = 30; plucking = "Two leaves and a bud" (flush); India = 2nd largest producer (after China) |
| Tea — types | Black (full fermentation), Green (no fermentation), Oolong (partial), White (minimal) |
| Tea — disease | Blister blight (Exobasidium vexans) = most important; pest: Tea mosquito bug |
| Cocoa — basics | Sterculiaceae; 2n = 20; "Food of Gods"; cauliflory (flowers on trunk); pollinated by midges |
| Cashew — basics | Anacardiaceae; 2n = 42; Origin: Brazil; "Dollar Earning Crop"; nut = true fruit; apple = false fruit |
| Cashew — production | India = largest processor & exporter; Maharashtra leads; CNSL for industrial use |
| Cashew — pest | Tea mosquito bug = most serious pest |
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