๐ค Common Diseases
Common Diseases
Genetic Disorders
Genetic disorders are diseases caused by abnormalities in an individual's DNA. They can be inherited from parents or arise from new mutations. These disorders are broadly classified based on whether the mutation affects a single gene (Mendelian/monogenic disorders) or entire chromosomes (chromosomal disorders).
| Disorder | Inheritance | Features |
|---|---|---|
| Phenylketonuria (PKU) | Autosomal recessive | Deficiency of the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase; the amino acid phenylalanine accumulates in blood and brain, causing mental retardation if untreated. Early detection through newborn screening and a phenylalanine-restricted diet can prevent brain damage. |
| Alkaptonuria | Autosomal recessive | Deficiency of homogentisic acid oxidase; homogentisic acid accumulates and is excreted in urine, which turns dark on standing (a classic diagnostic sign). Long-term accumulation leads to joint problems (ochronosis). |
| Albinism | Autosomal recessive | Deficiency of the enzyme tyrosinase, which is needed for melanin production; results in complete absence of melanin pigment in skin, hair, and eyes. Affected individuals are highly sensitive to UV radiation. |
| Thalassemia | Autosomal recessive | Defective synthesis of hemoglobin chains; ฮฑ-thalassemia involves genes on chromosome 16, while ฮฒ-thalassemia involves genes on chromosome 11. Leads to hemolytic anemia and often requires regular blood transfusions. |
| G6PD deficiency | X-linked recessive | Deficiency of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase; RBCs become vulnerable to oxidative stress, leading to hemolytic anemia โ particularly triggered by certain drugs, infections, or foods (like fava beans). |
| Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy | X-linked recessive | Deficiency of the protein dystrophin; causes progressive degeneration and weakening of skeletal muscles, typically appearing in early childhood in boys. |
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Common Diseases
Genetic Disorders
Genetic disorders are diseases caused by abnormalities in an individual's DNA. They can be inherited from parents or arise from new mutations. These disorders are broadly classified based on whether the mutation affects a single gene (Mendelian/monogenic disorders) or entire chromosomes (chromosomal disorders).
| Disorder | Inheritance | Features |
|---|---|---|
| Phenylketonuria (PKU) | Autosomal recessive | Deficiency of the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase; the amino acid phenylalanine accumulates in blood and brain, causing mental retardation if untreated. Early detection through newborn screening and a phenylalanine-restricted diet can prevent brain damage. |
| Alkaptonuria | Autosomal recessive | Deficiency of homogentisic acid oxidase; homogentisic acid accumulates and is excreted in urine, which turns dark on standing (a classic diagnostic sign). Long-term accumulation leads to joint problems (ochronosis). |
| Albinism | Autosomal recessive | Deficiency of the enzyme tyrosinase, which is needed for melanin production; results in complete absence of melanin pigment in skin, hair, and eyes. Affected individuals are highly sensitive to UV radiation. |
| Thalassemia | Autosomal recessive | Defective synthesis of hemoglobin chains; ฮฑ-thalassemia involves genes on chromosome 16, while ฮฒ-thalassemia involves genes on chromosome 11. Leads to hemolytic anemia and often requires regular blood transfusions. |
| G6PD deficiency | X-linked recessive | Deficiency of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase; RBCs become vulnerable to oxidative stress, leading to hemolytic anemia โ particularly triggered by certain drugs, infections, or foods (like fava beans). |
| Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy | X-linked recessive | Deficiency of the protein dystrophin; causes progressive degeneration and weakening of skeletal muscles, typically appearing in early childhood in boys. |
NOTE
Autosomal recessive means both copies of the gene (one from each parent) must be defective for the disease to manifest. Carriers have one defective copy but are phenotypically normal. X-linked recessive disorders are more common in males because they have only one X chromosome โ a single defective copy is sufficient to cause the disease.
Chromosomal Disorders
Chromosomal disorders result from abnormalities in chromosome number or structure. Aneuploidy (having an extra or missing chromosome) is the most common cause. These typically arise from errors during cell division, particularly non-disjunction โ the failure of chromosomes to separate properly during meiosis.
| Disorder | Karyotype | Features |
|---|---|---|
| Down syndrome | Trisomy 21 (47, +21) | Mental retardation, flat face, short stature, simian crease (single transverse palmar crease), epicanthic fold, increased risk of congenital heart defects. Most common autosomal trisomy in live births. |
| Edward syndrome | Trisomy 18 (47, +18) | Severe mental retardation, clenched fists with overlapping fingers, rocker-bottom feet; most affected infants die before 1 year of age |
| Patau syndrome | Trisomy 13 (47, +13) | Cleft lip/palate, polydactyly (extra fingers/toes), severe mental retardation; usually fatal in the first year |
| Cri-du-chat | Deletion 5p | Named for the distinctive cat-like cry in infants (due to laryngeal abnormality); mental retardation, microcephaly (small head). Caused by deletion of the short arm of chromosome 5. |
| Klinefelter syndrome | 47, XXY | Male; tall stature, gynecomastia (breast development), infertile, small testes. The extra X chromosome leads to reduced testosterone production. |
| Turner syndrome | 45, XO | Female; short stature, webbed neck, infertile, absence of secondary sexual characters at puberty. Only monosomy compatible with life. |
| Super males | 47, XYY | Tall males with generally normal fertility; may have mild behavioral or learning difficulties |
| Super females | 47, XXX | Usually phenotypically normal; may have learning difficulties. Most extra X chromosomes are inactivated (Barr bodies). |
Quick memory aid for chromosomal disorders
**Trisomy numbers**: Down = **21** (most common), Edward = **18**, Patau = **13**. Remember: **D**own (21) > **E**dward (18) > **P**atau (13) โ alphabetical order matches decreasing chromosome number! For sex chromosome disorders: **XXY** = Klinefelter (male, infertile), **XO** = Turner (female, infertile), **XYY** = Super male, **XXX** = Super female.Common Diseases
Bacterial Diseases
| Disease | Pathogen | Transmission | Key Symptoms |
|---|---|---|---|
| Typhoid | Salmonella typhi | Contaminated food/water | Sustained fever (step-ladder pattern โ rising gradually over the first week), rose spots on abdomen, intestinal ulceration; diagnosed by Widal test |
| Pneumonia | Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus | Droplet infection | Fever, cough with rusty sputum, chest pain, consolidation of lungs (alveoli filled with fluid) |
| Bacillary dysentery | Shigella dysenteriae | Fecal-oral route | Bloody diarrhea with mucus, abdominal cramps, dehydration |
| Plague | Yersinia pestis | Flea bite (Xenopsylla cheopis โ the rat flea), rat reservoir | Three forms: Bubonic (swollen, painful lymph nodes called buboes), pneumonic (lung infection, most dangerous), septicemic (bloodstream infection) |
| Diphtheria | Corynebacterium diphtheriae | Droplet infection | Formation of a grey pseudomembrane in the throat that can obstruct breathing; the bacterium produces a potent exotoxin that damages the heart and nervous system |
| Tetanus | Clostridium tetani | Wound contamination (soil, rusty objects) | Muscle spasms, lockjaw (trismus โ inability to open the mouth); caused by the toxin tetanospasmin; prevented by DPT/Td vaccine |
Viral Diseases
| Disease | Pathogen | Transmission | Key Features |
|---|---|---|---|
| Common cold | Rhinovirus | Droplet / contact | Sneezing, runny nose, sore throat; self-limiting (resolves on its own in 5โ7 days); no lasting immunity (too many viral strains) |
| Chickenpox | Varicella-zoster virus | Droplet / contact | Itchy vesicular rash appearing in successive crops (different stages simultaneously); virus remains latent in dorsal root ganglia and can reactivate later in life as shingles (herpes zoster) |
| Dengue | Dengue virus (Flavivirus) | Aedes aegypti mosquito | Called "break-bone fever" due to severe joint and muscle pain; dengue hemorrhagic fever can be fatal (bleeding, plasma leakage, shock); diagnosed by NS1 antigen test |
| Hepatitis B | Hepatitis B virus (HBV) | Blood, sexual contact, vertical (mother to child) | Jaundice, liver damage, can lead to chronic hepatitis and liver cancer; HBsAg (surface antigen) is the key diagnostic marker; vaccine available (recombinant) |
Protozoal Diseases
| Disease | Pathogen | Transmission | Key Features |
|---|---|---|---|
| Amoebiasis | Entamoeba histolytica | Fecal-oral (cysts in contaminated water) | Amoebic dysentery (bloody diarrhea with mucus), liver abscess in severe cases |
| Malaria | Plasmodium species (P. vivax, P. falciparum, P. malariae, P. ovale) | Female Anopheles mosquito | Cyclic fever pattern (chills โ high fever โ profuse sweating); P. falciparum causes the most dangerous form โ malignant/cerebral malaria |
Malaria Life Cycle (Brief)
The malaria parasite has a complex life cycle involving both the mosquito (where sexual reproduction occurs) and humans (where asexual multiplication occurs):
- In mosquito (sexual cycle): Gametocytes taken up during blood meal โ fertilization in gut โ oocyst on gut wall โ sporozoites migrate to salivary glands
- In human liver (pre-erythrocytic cycle): Sporozoites injected during bite โ invade liver cells โ schizogony (asexual multiplication) โ merozoites released into blood
- In human RBCs (erythrocytic cycle): Merozoites invade RBCs โ develop through trophozoite โ schizont stages โ RBC bursts releasing new merozoites (this RBC lysis causes the periodic fever); some merozoites form gametocytes (picked up by the next mosquito)
- P. vivax and P. ovale form hypnozoites (dormant stages in liver cells) โ these can reactivate months or years later, causing relapses
IMPORTANT
The mosquito is the definitive host (where sexual reproduction occurs) and humans are the intermediate host (where asexual reproduction occurs) โ a common exam question!
Helminth Diseases
| Disease | Pathogen | Transmission | Key Features |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ascariasis | Ascaris lumbricoides (roundworm) | Fecal-oral (eggs in contaminated soil) | Abdominal pain, malnutrition (worm competes for nutrients), intestinal obstruction in heavy infections |
| Filariasis (Elephantiasis) | Wuchereria bancrofti | Culex mosquito | Adult worms block lymphatic vessels โ chronic lymphatic obstruction โ massive swelling of limbs or scrotum |
Fungal Diseases
| Disease | Pathogen | Features |
|---|---|---|
| Ringworm | Microsporum, Trichophyton, Epidermophyton | Causes circular, red, scaly patches on skin, scalp, or nails. Despite the name, it is NOT caused by a worm โ it is a fungal infection (dermatophytosis). The circular pattern of the rash gives it the misleading name. |
Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)
Sexually transmitted diseases (also called sexually transmitted infections or STIs) are infections that spread primarily through sexual contact. They can be caused by bacteria, viruses, or protozoans.
| Disease | Pathogen | Type |
|---|---|---|
| Gonorrhea | Neisseria gonorrhoeae | Bacterial |
| Syphilis | Treponema pallidum | Bacterial |
| Chlamydia | Chlamydia trachomatis | Bacterial |
| Genital herpes | Herpes simplex virus (HSV-2) | Viral |
| Genital warts | Human papillomavirus (HPV) | Viral |
| AIDS | HIV | Viral |
| Hepatitis B | HBV | Viral |
| Trichomoniasis | Trichomonas vaginalis | Protozoal |
TIP
Prevention of STDs: Use of condoms, avoiding multiple sexual partners, screening and early treatment, vaccination (HPV vaccine, Hepatitis B vaccine).
Cancer
Cancer is the uncontrolled, abnormal proliferation of cells that can invade and destroy surrounding tissues. Normal cells divide in a regulated manner, but cancer cells escape these controls, dividing endlessly and sometimes spreading to distant body parts (metastasis).
Types of Cancer
| Type | Tissue of Origin |
|---|---|
| Carcinoma | Epithelial tissue (most common type of cancer โ includes skin, breast, lung, colon cancers) |
| Sarcoma | Connective tissue (bone, cartilage, muscle, fat) |
| Lymphoma | Lymphatic tissue (Hodgkin's lymphoma, Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma) |
| Leukemia | Blood-forming tissue (bone marrow) โ often called "liquid tumor" because cancer cells circulate in blood rather than forming a solid mass |
Key Genetic Concepts
Cancer is fundamentally a disease of genes. Three types of genes are critical:
| Gene Type | Normal Function | In Cancer |
|---|---|---|
| Proto-oncogenes | Promote normal cell growth and division | Mutate into oncogenes โ drive uncontrolled growth (like a stuck accelerator pedal) |
| Tumor suppressor genes | Inhibit cell growth; act as "brakes" (e.g., p53, Rb) | Inactivated by mutation โ loss of growth control (like removing the brakes) |
| Suicide genes | Trigger programmed cell death (apoptosis) when cells are damaged | Inactivated โ damaged cells escape death and continue to proliferate |
IMPORTANT
p53 is called the "guardian of the genome" โ it is mutated in over 50% of all human cancers. It normally stops cell division when DNA is damaged and triggers apoptosis if damage is irreparable.
Carcinogens (Cancer-Causing Agents)
Carcinogens are agents that can cause cancer by damaging DNA or disrupting cellular metabolic processes:
- Physical: UV radiation, X-rays, ionizing radiation
- Chemical: tobacco smoke (benzpyrene โ a potent carcinogen), asbestos, aflatoxins (produced by Aspergillus flavus on stored grains), vinyl chloride
- Biological: oncogenic viruses โ HPV โ cervical cancer, HBV โ liver cancer, EBV (Epstein-Barr virus) โ Burkitt's lymphoma
Cancer Detection
- Biopsy โ histopathological examination of tissue (the gold standard for diagnosis)
- Blood tests โ tumor markers (PSA for prostate cancer, CA-125 for ovarian cancer)
- Imaging โ CT scan, MRI, PET scan, mammography
- Molecular โ PCR, gene expression analysis
Cancer Treatment
| Method | Principle |
|---|---|
| Surgery | Physical removal of the tumor; most effective for localized, solid tumors |
| Radiation therapy | High-energy radiation to kill cancer cells or shrink tumors |
| Chemotherapy | Cytotoxic drugs that kill rapidly dividing cells; vincristine and vinblastine are obtained from Catharanthus roseus (= Vinca rosea) โ they work by inhibiting cell division (block spindle formation) |
| Immunotherapy | Stimulate the patient's own immune system to fight cancer; includes monoclonal antibodies and checkpoint inhibitors |
| Hormone therapy | Block hormones that fuel certain cancers (e.g., tamoxifen blocks estrogen receptors in breast cancer) |
Drugs and Substance Abuse
Substance abuse refers to the harmful use of psychoactive substances, including alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drugs. These substances alter brain chemistry, mood, and behavior, and many are highly addictive.
| Substance | Type | Effect |
|---|---|---|
| LSD (Lysergic acid diethylamide) | Hallucinogen | Altered perception of reality, vivid hallucinations, distorted sense of time |
| Opioids (morphine, heroin, codeine) | Narcotic analgesic | Pain relief, intense euphoria, respiratory depression; highly addictive; derived from opium poppy (Papaver somniferum) |
| Marijuana / Cannabis | Cannabinoid | Altered mood, impaired short-term memory, slowed reaction time; active compound is THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) |
| Cocaine | CNS stimulant | Euphoria, increased alertness and energy, increased heart rate; highly addictive; derived from Erythroxylum coca |
| Tobacco (nicotine) | Stimulant | Nicotine causes addiction; long-term use leads to cardiovascular disease, lung cancer, COPD |
| Alcohol (ethanol) | CNS depressant | Impaired judgment and coordination; chronic use leads to liver cirrhosis, brain damage |
WARNING
Heroin (diacetylmorphine) is chemically derived from morphine and is one of the most addictive substances known. It is administered by injection, snorting, or smoking, and rapidly crosses the blood-brain barrier to produce intense euphoria followed by severe withdrawal symptoms.
Beginner's Box โ Practice Questions
Set 1: Immunity Basics
-
Innate immunity barrier provided by skin acidity (pH 3โ5) is classified as: Answer: Physical barrier
-
Which cells of innate immunity kill virus-infected cells? Answer: NK (Natural Killer) cells
-
The first antibody produced in a primary immune response is: Answer: IgM
-
Which antibody crosses the placenta? Answer: IgG
-
MALT constitutes what percentage of total lymphoid tissue? Answer: ~50%
Set 2: Antibodies and Vaccines
-
The most abundant immunoglobulin in blood serum is: Answer: IgG (75โ80%)
-
Which antibody is involved in allergic reactions? Answer: IgE
-
BCG vaccine is an example of which type of vaccine? Answer: Live attenuated
-
DPT vaccine contains toxoid components for which diseases? Answer: Diphtheria and Tetanus
-
The molecular weight of IgM is: Answer: 9,60,000 (it is a pentamer)
Set 3: Diseases
-
Widal test is used to diagnose: Answer: Typhoid
-
The vector for malaria is: Answer: Female Anopheles mosquito
-
Which Plasmodium species causes the most dangerous form of malaria? Answer: P. falciparum
-
Elephantiasis (filariasis) is transmitted by: Answer: Culex mosquito
-
Down syndrome is caused by trisomy of chromosome: Answer: 21
Set 4: AIDS and Cancer
-
The surface glycoprotein of HIV that binds to CD4 receptor is: Answer: GP-120
-
The confirmatory test for HIV is: Answer: Western Blot
-
Vincristine and vinblastine used in chemotherapy are obtained from: Answer: Catharanthus roseus (Vinca rosea)
-
The karyotype of Klinefelter syndrome is: Answer: 47, XXY
-
HLA genes are located on which chromosome? Answer: Chromosome 6
Set 5: Mixed
-
Cyclosporin A (immunosuppressant) is obtained from: Answer: Trichoderma polysporum
-
Turner syndrome has the karyotype: Answer: 45, XO
-
Tay-Sachs disease is caused by deficiency of: Answer: Hexosaminidase A
-
Which type of transplant is between identical twins? Answer: Isograft
-
Anaphylactic shock is mediated by which antibody? Answer: IgE
Image Generation Prompts
Image Generation Prompt 1: T-Cell and B-Cell Activation Pathway
A flowchart-style diagram showing the activation of both T-cells and B-cells in an immune response. Start with an Antigen-Presenting Cell (APC โ macrophage or dendritic cell) processing a pathogen and presenting antigen fragments on MHC Class II molecules. Show a T-helper cell (CD4+) recognizing the MHC II-antigen complex, becoming activated, and releasing cytokines (interleukins shown as signaling arrows). The cytokines activate two pathways: (1) B-cell pathway โ B-cell recognizes antigen, gets T-helper signal, differentiates into Plasma cells (producing antibodies โ show Y-shaped molecules being secreted) and Memory B-cells (stored for future response); (2) T-killer (CD8+) pathway โ activated by IL-2, recognizes MHC Class I on infected cells, releases perforin and granzymes to destroy the target cell (shown with lysis). Include Memory T-cells branching off. Use arrows and distinct cell shapes. Clean immunology textbook style with color-coded cells.
Image Generation Prompt 2: Malaria Parasite Life Cycle in Human and Mosquito
A circular life cycle diagram of Plasmodium (malaria parasite) showing stages in both the human host and the Anopheles mosquito vector. In the mosquito (sexual cycle, top half): show gametocytes taken up during blood meal, male and female gametes fusing in mosquito gut to form zygote, zygote becoming ookinete then oocyst on gut wall, oocyst releasing sporozoites that migrate to salivary glands. In the human (asexual cycle, bottom half): show sporozoites injected during mosquito bite, traveling to liver (pre-erythrocytic/exo-erythrocytic cycle โ sporozoites invading hepatocytes, undergoing schizogony to produce merozoites; note hypnozoites for P. vivax/P. ovale). Show merozoites entering RBCs (erythrocytic cycle โ ring stage/trophozoite, schizont, merozoites bursting out of RBC causing fever). Show some merozoites developing into gametocytes that are picked up by the next mosquito. Use a circular layout with the mosquito at top and human at bottom. Label each stage clearly. Educational parasitology textbook style.
Summary Cheat Sheet
| Concept / Topic | Key Details / Explanation |
|---|---|
| Genetic Disorders โ Autosomal Recessive | PKU: deficiency of phenylalanine hydroxylase, mental retardation Alkaptonuria: deficiency of homogentisic acid oxidase, dark urine Albinism: deficiency of tyrosinase, no melanin Thalassemia: defective globin chain synthesis (alpha or beta) |
| Genetic Disorders โ X-linked | G6PD deficiency: X-linked recessive, haemolytic anaemia DMD (Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy): X-linked recessive, dystrophin gene defect, progressive muscle wasting Haemophilia A: Factor VIII deficiency Haemophilia B: Factor IX deficiency |
| Genetic Disorders โ Other | Sickle cell anaemia: autosomal recessive, HbS (glutamic acid โ valine at position 6 of beta chain) Tay-Sachs: deficiency of hexosaminidase A Cystic fibrosis: defective CFTR chloride channel |
| Chromosomal Disorders โ Autosomal | Down syndrome (Trisomy 21): 47 chromosomes, karyotype 47,XX/XY,+21, mongoloid features, mental retardation Edward syndrome (Trisomy 18): severe intellectual disability, clenched fists Patau syndrome (Trisomy 13): cleft lip/palate, polydactyly Cri-du-chat: deletion of short arm of chromosome 5, cat-like cry |
| Chromosomal Disorders โ Sex-linked | Klinefelter syndrome: 47,XXY (male), gynecomastia, sterile Turner syndrome: 45,XO (female), short stature, webbed neck, sterile Super female: 47,XXX Super male: 47,XYY |
| Bacterial Diseases | Typhoid: Salmonella typhi, Widal test Cholera: Vibrio cholerae, rice-water stools TB: Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mantoux test Pneumonia: Streptococcus pneumoniae Plague: Yersinia pestis, rat flea vector Leprosy: Mycobacterium leprae, armadillo used in research Diphtheria: Corynebacterium diphtheriae, pseudomembrane in throat |
| Viral Diseases | Common cold: Rhinovirus Influenza: Influenza virus (types A, B, C) Dengue: Dengue virus, vector Aedes aegypti, break-bone fever Chikungunya: Chikungunya virus, vector Aedes Polio: Poliovirus, Salk vaccine (IPV) and Sabin vaccine (OPV) Rabies: Rabies virus (Lyssavirus), Negri bodies, hydrophobia Measles: Measles virus, Koplik spots |
| Protozoal Diseases | Malaria: Plasmodium (4 species), vector female Anopheles mosquito P. vivax: benign tertian (48 hr), hypnozoites cause relapse P. falciparum: malignant tertian, cerebral malaria, most dangerous P. malariae: quartan (72 hr) Amoebic dysentery: Entamoeba histolytica Kala-azar: Leishmania donovani, vector sandfly |
| Malaria Life Cycle | In mosquito (sexual cycle): gametocytes โ gametes โ zygote โ ookinete โ oocyst โ sporozoites (in salivary glands) In human (asexual cycle): sporozoites โ liver (exo-erythrocytic cycle, schizogony) โ merozoites โ RBCs (erythrocytic cycle) โ ring stage โ trophozoite โ schizont โ merozoites burst out (causes fever) Some merozoites โ gametocytes (picked up by mosquito) |
| Helminth Diseases | Ascariasis: Ascaris lumbricoides (roundworm) Filariasis (Elephantiasis): Wuchereria bancrofti, vector Culex mosquito Taeniasis: Taenia solium (pork tapeworm), T. saginata (beef) Hookworm: Ancylostoma duodenale, enters through bare feet |
| Fungal Diseases | Ringworm: Microsporum, Trichophyton, Epidermophyton Athlete's foot: Trichophyton Candidiasis: Candida albicans |
| STDs | Gonorrhoea: Neisseria gonorrhoeae Syphilis: Treponema pallidum, Wassermann test Genital herpes: Herpes simplex virus (HSV-2) HIV/AIDS: Human Immunodeficiency Virus Hepatitis B: HBV, transmitted sexually and through blood Chlamydia: Chlamydia trachomatis โ most common bacterial STD |
| Cancer | Benign tumour: non-invasive, encapsulated Malignant tumour: invasive, metastasis (spread via blood/lymph) Oncogenes: mutated proto-oncogenes that promote cancer Tumour suppressor genes: p53, Rb โ prevent cancer; their loss causes cancer Carcinogens: physical (UV, X-rays), chemical (tobacco, asbestos), biological (HPV, EBV, HBV) Treatment: surgery, chemotherapy, radiation, immunotherapy |
| Substance Abuse | Opioids: morphine, heroin โ bind to opioid receptors, highly addictive Cannabinoids: marijuana โ from Cannabis sativa, affects cardiovascular system Cocaine: from Erythroxylum coca, CNS stimulant LSD: lysergic acid diethylamide, hallucinogen Tobacco: nicotine (stimulant), causes lung cancer, emphysema, COPD Alcohol: depressant, liver cirrhosis |
| Immunity Recap | Cyclosporin A: immunosuppressant from Trichoderma polysporum Isograft: transplant between identical twins Anaphylactic shock: mediated by IgE |
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