🔥Farm Power and Mechanisation

India’s journey from bullocks ploughing 2 hectares to tractors commanding 15 hectares reflects the transformative power of farm mechanisation. Understanding the different sources of farm power — from the 0.1 HP of human labour to the 80 HP of modern tractors — is essential for planning efficient, productive agricultural operations.

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Forms of farm power

Farm power refers to all the sources of energy used in agricultural operations. Understanding the different forms of farm power is essential for planning mechanization strategies. It is broadly classified into two forms:

1. Mobile — power sources that can move across the farm.
2. Stationary — power sources that remain fixed in one location.

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I. Mobile

Mobile farm power includes all sources that can be transported or move along with farm operations:

• Human Power
• Animal Power
• Mechanical Power

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Human Power

• A strong man can develop maximum power of about 75 watts (0.1 hp) for doing farm work. This is the most basic and widely available form of farm power, especially in small and marginal farms where mechanization has not yet reached.

• The average human power availability in sustained working is as follows:

  • Male: 60 watts (0.06 kW)
  • Female: 48 watts (0.048 kW)
  • Children: 30 watts (0.030 kW)

Human power is limited but remains essential for delicate operations such as transplanting, weeding, and harvesting of fruits and vegetables where machines may damage the produce or cannot access tight spaces.

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Animal Power

Draught animals

• Average pair of bullocks: 1 hp. Draught animals have been the backbone of Indian agriculture for centuries and are still widely used in many regions, especially where farm sizes are small and terrain is unsuitable for tractors.

• The power available from draught animals is related to its body weight:

  • Bullock: About 10% of the body weight
  • Buffaloes: About 12% of the body weight
  • Camels: About 18% of the body weight
  • Donkey: About 32% of the body weight

  These percentages indicate the draft force that each animal can exert relative to its own weight. Notably, the donkey has the highest power-to-weight ratio among common draught animals, despite being the smallest.

• One pair of bullocks can command about 2 ha land. This means one pair can effectively cultivate 2 hectares in a cropping season.
• A power tiller (7.46 KW) can command about 5 ha land. Power tillers bridge the gap between animal power and full tractor mechanization.
• A tractor (26.1 KW) can command about 15 ha land. Tractors are the most efficient source of mobile farm power for medium to large holdings.

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Mechanical Power

Mechanical power on the farm comes from engine-driven machines:

• Tractor — the most common and versatile source of mechanical farm power. It can pull implements, drive stationary machines through the PTO, and transport materials.

• Power Tiller — a walking-type tractor suited for small farms and hilly terrain where full-sized tractors cannot maneuver.

• Self-propelled machines — machines that have their own engine and can move independently:

  • Combines — perform harvesting and threshing in a single pass, dramatically reducing time and labour.
  • Transplanters — mechanize the process of transplanting seedlings (especially rice), ensuring uniform spacing and depth.
  • Reapers — cut standing crops in the field quickly and uniformly.
  • Sprayers — apply pesticides and herbicides while moving through the field, covering large areas efficiently.

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II. Stationary

• This kind of power can be provided by either the stationary engines or the electric motors. Unlike mobile power, stationary power sources remain at a fixed location and power equipment through belts, shafts, or electrical connections.

• Stationary oil engines can be used for pumping water, flour mill, cotton gins, sugarcane crusher, thresher, winnower etc. These engines run on diesel or kerosene and are common in rural areas where electricity is unreliable or unavailable.

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Electrical Power

• Electrical power is used mostly in the form of electrical motors on the farms. Electric motors are clean, efficient, and require minimal maintenance compared to fuel engines.

• Electrical power is used for water pumping, dairy industry, cold storage, farm product processing, fruit industry, poultry industry etc. Wherever a reliable grid connection is available, electric motors are the preferred choice due to lower running costs and consistent power output.

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Renewable Energy

• It is the energy obtained from biomass, sun and wind.

• The energy obtained from these renewable resources, which are naturally replenished on a human timescale, is used for many agricultural and domestic purposes. Unlike fossil fuels, renewable energy sources do not deplete with use and have a much lower environmental impact.

• Examples: Used for lighting, cooking, water heating, water distillation, food processing, water pumping, diesel engine operation with supplementary fuel and electrical generation on small scale. As solar panels and biogas plants become more affordable, adoption of renewable energy in farming is rapidly increasing across India.

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Farm Mechanization

• Farm mechanization is the application of engineering and technology in agricultural operations to do a job in a better way to improve productivity. It replaces manual and animal labour with machines to increase speed, efficiency, and output while reducing drudgery and human fatigue.

• When we talk about farm mechanization, it includes development, application and management of all mechanical aids for field production, water control, material handling, storing and processing. It encompasses the entire chain from land preparation to post-harvest management.

• It includes not only big machines, but it is a need-based process which provides sufficient time gap for self-adjustment of various inputs without causing sudden impact of changes. This means mechanization should be introduced gradually, matching the local needs, skill levels, and economic capacity of farmers. Forced or premature mechanization can lead to unemployment and underutilization of expensive equipment.

• Mechanization in farming operations is classified under following heads:

  • Land levelling — preparing flat, uniform fields for efficient irrigation.
  • Seed bed preparation — creating optimal soil conditions for seed germination.
  • Sowing — placing seeds in the soil at proper depth, spacing, and rate.
  • Weeding and interculture operations — removing weeds and loosening soil around growing crops.
  • Fertilizer application — applying nutrients to the soil or plants.
  • Harvesting and threshing — cutting crops and separating grains from the plant.

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Land Levelling

• Land levelling is a measure used in surface irrigation, such as basin and furrow irrigation. It is one of the most important pre-sowing operations for improving irrigation efficiency. A properly levelled field can save up to 20-30% of irrigation water.

• It consists of:

  • Preparing the irrigation plot in a way that no high and/or low spots disturb the uniform distribution of irrigation water on the field, and
  • Ensuring the optimum slope for water movement across a field when irrigating. A well-levelled field allows water to spread evenly, reaching every part of the plot without wastage.

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Importance

• Levelling results in more efficient irrigation and, if fertigation and chemigation are applied, in more efficient use of fertilizers and pesticides. Fertigation means applying fertilizers through irrigation water, while chemigation involves applying chemicals (herbicides, fungicides) through the irrigation system.

• In an unlevelled field, high spots might not be covered by irrigation water, and the dissolved nutrients and/or pesticides might percolate unused into the soil. This results in wasted inputs and uneven crop growth.

• In case of low spots, water and the dissolved nutrients and chemicals might accumulate there and create zones of water logging and nutrient or pesticide accumulation. Water logging suffocates crop roots and can lead to root diseases and crop failure.

• This in turn will disturb soil aeration and water uptake by crops.

• In either case, the uniformity of the crop cover is disturbed, and yields might decrease.

• Benefits of land levelling:

  • Higher yield — uniform water and nutrient distribution promote even crop growth.
  • Better weed control — uniform water depth suppresses weed emergence.
  • Larger farming area — elimination of high ridges and deep furrows maximizes usable land.
  • Faster seeding/less work — machinery operates more efficiently on level ground.
  • Better use of water — reduced water wastage through even distribution.

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Equipments for land levelling

• For land development, bullock drawn implements have been developed and are commercially available such as:
  • Scoop — used for digging and moving soil short distances.
  • Buck scraper — a larger earth-moving tool pulled by bullocks.
  • U-leveler — shapes the land surface to a uniform level.
  • Float leveler — smooths and levels the soil after initial preparation.
  • Laser leveler — uses modern laser technology for precision levelling, achieving accuracy within a few millimetres.

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Soil Scoop

• Soil scoops are used for excavating ditches, clearing drains and doing cut and fill jobs in land leveling. They are simple, effective tools for moving earth on small to medium farms.

• The angle of the cutting blade varies from 12 degrees to 15 degrees angle. This angle determines how effectively the scoop can penetrate and lift the soil.

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Leveling board - bullock drawn

• It is a wooden board of length 2.0 m, width 0.4 m and thickness 0.3 m provided with side wings, hitching braces and handle. The board is dragged across the field, pushing soil from high spots to low spots.

• The following can also be used:

  • 2-wheel tractors using harrows and leveling boards
  • 4-wheel tractor using rear mounted tractor blades or drag
  • By a 4-wheel tractor with a laser-controlled bucket — the most precise method, capable of achieving a tolerance of just a few millimetres.

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Laser Land Leveling

• Laser leveling systems are commonly used in agricultural applications in Australia, Japan and the United States. These countries have pioneered the technology for large-scale precision farming.

• Increasingly, laser guided systems are being used in lesser developed country contexts as well, including India where it has been promoted under several government schemes such as the National Mission on Agricultural Mechanization.

• Using laser leveling results in a much more level field because accuracy can be improved by as much as 50% compared with the other systems.

• A laser transmitter transmits a laser beam, which is intercepted by the laser receiver mounted on the leveling bucket.

• The control panel mounted on the tractor interprets the signal from the receiver and raises or lowers the bucket. This way the soil gets shifted to the right places to make the entire field level. The entire process is automated, reducing human error and achieving superior precision.

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Seed bed preparation

• Seed bed preparation is done to provide a suitable environment for the seeds to germinate. A well-prepared seed bed has fine, loose soil with adequate moisture and aeration for healthy seedling emergence. The quality of seed bed directly impacts germination percentage and early crop establishment.

Seed Drill

• Drilling — Dropping of seeds in furrow of a predetermined dimension, at a predetermined distance and depth, covering with soil followed by compacting is known as drilling. This ensures uniform placement of seeds for optimal germination and crop stand.

• Seed drill and Horse-hoe was introduced by Jethro Tull. He is considered one of the pioneers of modern agriculture for mechanizing the sowing process in the early 18th century.

• Seed drill is a machine used for placing the seeds in a continuous stream in furrows at uniform rate and at controlled depth with an arrangement of covering the seeds with soil.

• In manually metered seed drills a person drops the seeds in the furrows, while in mechanically metered seed drills a mechanical device called seed metering mechanism is used to meter the seeds. Mechanical metering ensures greater accuracy, speed, and uniformity.

• Seeds are sown/dropped in 5 cm depth of soil and 5 cm far from fertilizer. This separation prevents seed burn from direct contact with concentrated fertilizers that can damage the germinating seed.

• Seed drill performs the following functions:

  • To carry the seeds
  • To open furrows at uniform depths
  • To meter the seeds
  • To deposit the seeds in furrows in an acceptable pattern
  • To cover the seeds and compact the soil around the seed.

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• Seed Cum Fertilizer drill

  • Seed drills fitted with fertilizer dropping attachments are called seed-cum-fertilizer drills.
  • They deliver both the seeds and fertilizers simultaneously in an acceptable pattern. This saves time and labour by combining two operations in one pass and is the most commonly used type of drill in Indian farming.

• Seed metering mechanism

  • The mechanism which picks up seeds from the seed box and delivers them into the seed tube is called seed metering mechanism.
  • Seed metering mechanism may be of several types:
    • Fluted feed type — the most commonly used type.
    • Internal double run type
    • Cup feed type
    • Cell feed type
    • Brush feed type
    • Auger feed type
    • Picker wheel type and
    • Star wheel type

• Usually seed metering mechanism is provided at the bottom of the box.

• Fluted feed type seed metering mechanism is most commonly used in seed drill. It consists of a fluted roller that rotates and meters seeds through the gap between the roller and the housing. The seed rate can be adjusted by changing the exposed length of the fluted roller.

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• Calibration of Seed Drill:
  • Laboratory testing of a seed drill to determine the rate of seed delivery is called calibration of a seed drill. Proper calibration ensures the correct seeding rate per hectare, which is critical for achieving optimal plant population.
  • Size of seed drill = no. of furrow openers x distance between two furrow openers
  • Sowing area in 1 circle of seed drill = Size of drill x p x D
• Types of furrow openers:
  • The furrow openers are provided in a seed drill for opening a furrow in the soil.
  • The seeds travel through the seed tube and reach the furrow.

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Planter

• Planter is a sowing equipment used for sowing those seeds which are larger in size and cannot be handled by seed drills. Unlike seed drills which drop seeds continuously, planters place individual seeds at precise intervals (hill dropping or precision placement).

• Row to row and plant to plant spacing is maintained in a planter. This precise spacing is critical for crops that require specific distances between plants for optimal growth, such as maize, cotton, sunflower, and potato.

• Potato planter, maize planter, cotton planter are the commonly used equipment.

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Potato planter (Automatic seed dropping)

• The fertilizer and pesticide can also be placed simultaneously, making it a multi-functional machine that combines planting, fertilizing, and pest protection in one pass.

• It can plant in 2-4 rows. Field capacity is 6000-14000 potatoes/hr.

Potato planter (Semi-automatic)

• The fertilizer and pesticide can also be placed simultaneously.
• It can plant in 2-4 rows. Field capacity is 0.15-0.35 ha/hr. In the semi-automatic version, a worker manually feeds potatoes into the planting mechanism, which then places them in the furrow at the correct spacing.

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Manual rice planter

• The row to row spacing is 200 mm.
• It can cover 0.25 ha/day.
• Two men labour are required — one for pulling the unit and another for transporting the mat seedlings.
• The machine consists of a seedling tray and six number of forks that pick and transplant seedlings into the puddled field. This is a significant improvement over manual transplanting, which requires workers to stand in water for hours in a bent posture.

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Weeding and Intercultural

• The tillage operations that are carried out in the standing crop are called after tillage. These operations are performed between crop rows to control weeds and improve soil conditions.

• Collectively, the cultivation practices taken up after sowing of crop is called inter-cultivation. It is otherwise called as after operation or inter-culturing.

• It facilitates good aeration, and better development of root system. Removing weeds also reduces competition for water, light, and nutrients, allowing the crop to utilize all available resources for growth.

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Khurpi

• Khurpi is the most versatile hand hoe for removal of weeds. It is a simple, flat-bladed tool commonly used across Indian farms for close weeding between plants.

• It takes 300-700 man-hours to cover one hectare, depending upon crop, soil and weed infestation. This highlights the extremely labour-intensive nature of manual weeding and the urgent need for mechanized alternatives.

Hand Hoe

• Hand hoe is the most popular manually operated weeding tool used in the farm.
• It consists of an iron blade and a wooden handle.
• The operator holds the handle and cuts the soil with the blade to a shallow depth of 2-3 cm, thereby weeds are cut and soil is stirred.
• The handle is short (30-40 cm long) and hence the operator uses the tool in bending posture, which can be physically demanding and causes back pain over prolonged use.
• The coverage is 5-7 cents per day.

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Long Handle Weeders

• Hand hoes exert greater strain on the operator because of the short handle which necessitates the operator to do weeding job in bent posture.

• To avoid this, nowadays long handles are used in hoes and hence they are called long handle weeders. These are designed to allow the operator to work in an upright or semi-upright posture, reducing back strain and increasing working comfort.

• The popular long handle weeders available are a) star type weeder b) peg type weeder.

• These weeders are also called as dry land weeders since they are used in dry lands.

  • Star type weeder: It is suitable for weeding in dry lands. It can be used in garden lands also when the soil moisture is low (10-15%). Star wheel is designed for loamy soils. The operating width of the blade is 120 mm. The coverage is 0.05 ha/day.

• Peg type weeder: It is suitable for weeding in dry lands. It can be used in garden lands also when the soil moisture is low (10-15%). Peg type wheel is designed for clayey soils. The operating width of the blade is 120 mm. The coverage is 0.05 ha/day. The key difference from the star weeder is its suitability for heavier, clayey soils where star wheels may clog.

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Wheel hoe

• The coverage is 0.05 ha/day. The wheel hoe is pushed between rows and uses various attachments for weeding, cultivating, and furrowing. Its single wheel at the front guides the implement between rows.

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Cultivators

• It is an implement used for inter cultivation with laterally adjustable tines or discs to work between crop rows. Cultivators are versatile tools that can be adjusted to match different row spacings for various crops.

• This can be used for seed bed preparation and for sowing with seeding attachment. This dual functionality makes cultivators one of the most useful implements on the farm.

Types of cultivator

• Disc cultivator (It is a cultivator fitted with disc) — uses rotating discs to cut and mix soil.

• Rotary cultivator (It is a cultivator with tines or blades mounted on a power-driven horizontal shaft) — provides thorough soil pulverization.

• Tine cultivator (It is a cultivator fitted with tines having shovels) — the most common type for inter-row cultivation.

• Functions:

  • It stirs the soil and breaks the clods.
  • The tines fitted on the frame of the cultivator comb the soil deeply in the field.
  • Destruction of weeds is the primary function of a cultivator.

• Types of cultivator:

  • Depending upon the type of power available for the implements, the cultivator can be classified as:
    • Tractor drawn — used on larger farms with tractor mechanization.
    • Animal drawn — used on smaller farms where tractors are not available.

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• Types of tractor drawn implements:

• The tractor drawn implement may be Trailed or Mounted. Trailed implements are pulled behind the tractor on their own wheels, while mounted implements are attached directly to the tractor’s hydraulic system.

• Mounted Cultivator:

  • Tractors fitted with hydraulic lift operate the mounted type cultivators. The hydraulic system allows the operator to raise and lower the implement easily from the tractor seat.
  • A rectangular frame of angle iron is mounted on three point hydraulic linkage of the tractor. The three-point linkage is the universal attachment system found on virtually all modern tractors.
  • The cross members carry the tines in two staggered lines. Staggering prevents clogging by allowing trash to pass between the tines.
  • For actual cutting of the soil, different types of shovels and sweeps are used depending on the soil type and operation required.

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Harvesting and Threshing

• It is the operation of cutting, picking, plucking, digging or a combination of these operations for removing the crop from under the ground or above the ground or removing the useful part or fruits from plants. Timely harvesting is critical to minimize field losses and preserve grain quality — delayed harvesting can lead to shattering, bird damage, and weather-related losses.

Threshing

• Threshing is a process of detaching grain from ear heads or from the plants using impact or wearing (rubbing) action. After harvesting, threshing separates the edible grain from the straw and chaff.

• Most common threshing machines are olpad thresher, power thresher, threshing by combine etc.

• Size of thresher = size of cylinder x width of winnowing part

• Basic components of power thresher:

  • Feeding unit — where the crop material is fed into the machine. Proper feeding rate is crucial to prevent choking and ensure efficient threshing.
  • Threshing unit (concave, cylinder on which beaters/spike/rasp bar/hammer are mounted) — the core unit where grain separation occurs through impact and rubbing.
  • Cleaning unit with oscillating sieves, fan, air sucking duct (aspirator) — removes chaff and debris from grain using a combination of air blast and sieving.
  • Separating unit — further separates any remaining grain from straw.
  • Collecting unit — gathers the clean grain for bagging.

• Types of thresher (based on cylinder):

  • Rasp bar — shearing action: best suited for paddy.
  • Spike tooth — impact and shear action: versatile for multiple crops including wheat, sorghum, and maize.
  • Hammer mill — impact action: effective for hard-to-thresh crops.
  • Syndicator type — cutting action.
  • Loop thresher: specifically designed for paddy.

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Combine

• A combine harvester is a versatile machine that performs multiple operations in a single pass through the field, dramatically reducing harvest time and labour requirements.

• Function:

  • Cutting the standing crops
  • Feeding the cut crops into the threshing unit
  • Threshing the crops
  • Cleaning the grains freeing it from straw
  • Collecting the grains in container

• Types:

  • Self-propelled type: This has got its own independent engine and size varies from 2-4 m. It can move through the field on its own power.
  • PTO driven type: This combine is pulled by a tractor and the power requirement of the combine may be taken as 8 HP/m width of cut for pulled type machine and 12 HP/m width of cut for self propelled machines.

• Threshing efficiency: the grain received from all outlets with respect to total grain input expressed as percentage by mass. Higher threshing efficiency means less grain is left in the straw.

• Concave clearance: Clearance between beaters or cylinder tip and concave. Proper clearance adjustment is essential — too tight causes grain damage and breakage, too loose leaves grain unthreshed.

• Chaff cutter: machine used for cutting fodder for animal feed. ^{NABARD 2021}

• Duffee formula is used to determine the capacity of chaff cutter. This formula relates blade speed, number of blades, and length of cut to the output capacity of the machine.

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Summary Cheat Sheet