🌿 Protein and Fat Synthesis
Protein and Fat Synthesis.
This lesson provides exam-focused context on key concepts in crop physiology and connects the section topics for quick revision.
Biosynthesis of protein
Protein is a complex organic nitrogenous substance found in all living tissues of
plants and animals. They are polymer of amino acids in linear order. Synthesis of protein
may take place from amino acids produced by direct amination of organic acids or by
degradation of protein. Former is known as primary protein synthesis while the latter is
called secondary protein synthesis . Protein synthesis occurs in pre – DNA synthesis phase
(G1 phase) of cell cycle.
Biosynthesis of protein takes place in prokaryotes as well as in eukaryotes. Kinds of
protein to be synthesized depend upon the gene (DNA segment). Gene is continuous
uninterrupted sequence of nucleotides which codes for a single polypeptide chain. Now it is
believed that the sequence of some eukaryotic genes is found to be interrupted by nucleotides
that are not represented with the amino acid sequence of protein. They are non-coding
(silent). Genes control all metabolic processes by synthesizing proteins (enzymes).
Structure of an eukaryotic gene showing Exon (coding part) and Intron (non-coding part).
Mechanism of protein synthesis: Protein synthesis takes place in following two stages:
I. Transcription
II. Translation
Transcription: Transcription occurs throughout inter phase and continues up to early
prophase of cell division. It is primary stage of protein synthesis. When DNA produces
DNA the process is called replication but when DNA produces RNA the process is called
transcription. In the former case DNA is duplicated while in the latter case protein is
synthesized. During transcription RNA is synthesized on DNA template. Here, information
or order contained in DNA is passed on the mRNA for synthesis of particular protein. The
information is in coded form and consists of three nitrogenous bases (triplet codons). The
part of DNA responsible for synthesis of mRNA is which leads to one polypeptide chain is
called cistron (functional gene). New strands of mRNA are synthesized on DNA template
making use of RNA nucleotides present in surroundings in 5’ 3’ director just like DNA
chains.
Single DNA strand serves as template for RNA polymerase and synthesizes RNA.
DNA strand which serves as template for transcription is called the sense strand. The
complementary strand is antisense strand. In SV – 40 viruses both strands of DNA are
transcribed and it is called symmetrical transcription, but when only one strand is transcribed
it is called asymmetrical transcription. Former type of transcription also occurs in Polymer
virus DNA and in the mitochondria genome.
Mechanism of transcription
Transcription involves following events:
I. Uncoiling of DNA molecule
II. Synthesis and action of enzyme RNA polymerase
III. Synthesis of hn RNA / mRAN.
Uncoiling of DNA molecule: As per “nucleosome model” of chromosome.
Chromosomes are ‘matarmala’ like beaded structure. Beads are separated by string and are
making up of DNA and histone protein. Histone proteins are of 5 kinds: H2A, H2B, H3, H4
and H5 or H1. First four constitute the bead core and H1 links two beads. The DNA
molecules are wrapped on histone protein cores and linker protein core in beaded and linker
regions respectively.
Structure and function of enzyme RNA polymerase: RNA polymerase is a
holoenzyme. Core particle consists of sub units α’β, β’ and ψ. Cofactor consists of sigma
factor. For functional RNA polymerase formation the two (core enzyme and sigma factor)
gene united. Sigma factor recognized correct start signal at DNA template and core enzyme
continues transcription. Sigma factor dissociates after initiation of transcription to adjure
with other core enzyme of RNA polymerase. In prokaryotes RNA polymerase is only one
type while in eukaryotes.
Production of mRNA / hnRNA: In prokaryotes where nucleus is not well organized
mRNA is the direct product of transcription, while in eukaryotes the direct product of
transcription is hnRNA (heteronucleic RNA) and mRNA is derived from hnRNA by cutting
and splicing. HnRNA has coding and non-coding sequences. Coding sequences are
interrupted by non-coding sequences. Non coding sequences are removed by splicing
(cutting) by endonuclease enzyme and coding sequences are ligased together to from mRNA.
The spliced non-coding sequences are degraded within nucleus. It never goes out of nucleus.
Thus, only fraction of hnRNA is translocated to cytoplasm from nucleus via nuclear pore.
In eukaryotes migration of mRNA from nucleus to cytoplasm via nuclear pore occurs
through poly a tail. According to another view, ribosome’s pull the mRNA from nucleus to
cytoplasm. Now mRNA gets established in cytoplasm.
Translation: Translation is a process in which order (message) given by DNA to mRNA for
synthesis of particular protein is implemented (conveyed). Genetic information concealed in
mRNA directs the synthesis of particular protein. These orders are in coded form. This
coded information (expressed through codons) is recognized by tRNA having anticodons.
Anticodons are opposite to codons (codons and anticodons are complementary to each other).
Mechanism of translation: It involves following events:
I. Activation and selection of amino acids
II. Transfer of amino acids to tRNA molecules
III. Formation of protein synthesizing apparatus and chain initiation
IV. Chain elongation
V. Chain termination
FAT SYNTHESIS
Fat synthesis can be studied under the following heads:
Fat synthesis of Glycerol
There may be different methods of the formation of glycerol in plants, but one of the
very common methods is from dihydroxy acetone phosphate which is an intermediate of
glycolysis. Dihydroxyacetone phosphate is first reduced to α–glycerophosphate by the
enzyme glycerol – 3 – phosphate dehydrogenase. Co-enzyme NADH2 is oxidized in this
reaction. α–glycerophosphate is then hydrolysed by glycerol phosphatase to liberate
phosphoric acid and forming glycerol.
Synthesis of Fatty acids
Long chain saturated fatty acids* are synthesized in plants from active two carbon
units, the acetyl – CoA (CH3CO.CoA). Although the reactions of β – oxidation of fatty acids
are reversible, the fatty acids are not formed simply by the reverse reactions of β – oxidation.
Synthesis of fatty acids from CH3CO.CoA takes place step by step. In each step the fatty
acid chain is increased by two carbon atoms. Each step involves two reactions –
(i) In the first reaction which takes place in the presence of acetyl – CoA carboxylase, acetyl
- CoA combines with CO2 to form malonyl – CoA (malonic acid is 3 – C compound). ATP
provides energy while Mn [++] and biotin are required as co-factors.
(ii) Malonyl CoA reacts with another molecule of CH3CO.CoA in the presence of fatty acid
synthetase and Coenzyme NADPH2 to form Coenzyme – A derivative butric acid (butyric
acid contains 4 – atoms). One mol. Of CO2, H2O and CoA are released while NADPH2
oxidised in the reaction.
Butyryl CoA, in the next step will combine with malonyl CoA to form CoA derivative of
fatty acid containing 6-C atoms. This process is repeated till Coenzymes-A derivative of
long chain fatty acid (which may contain up to 16-18C atoms) is produced.
(As a matter of fact the enzyme fatty acid synthetase is not simple but a complex of many
enzymes (multienzyme complex) and an acyl carrier protein called as ACP**. And actually
the reaction (ii) described above only summarises a number of reactions involved in the
synthesis of fatty acid from acetyl – CoA which can be grouped under 3 categories
Initiation reaction: In this reaction acetyl CoA transfers its acetyl group to one of the – SH
groups of multienzyme complex i.e. fatty acid synthatase.
Unsaturated fatty acids are synthesized by denaturation of saturated fatty acid. ACP is similar
to CoA in having phosphopantetheine as the functional unit in their structures. In CoA, it is
esterified to Adenosine 3, 5 – bisphosphate but in ACP, it is esterified to serine of a protein
chain consisting of 81 amino acids.
Chain elongation reactions
Six different reactions involved here are (i) malonyl transfer, (ii) condensation, (iii)
reduction, (iv) dehydration, (v) reduction and (vi) acyl transfer. Chain elongation starts with
the transfer of malonyl group from malonyl – CoA to second – SH group of the multienzyme
complex. Then, there is a condensation of the latter so that a 4 – C unit is produced. This
unit by next three reactions i.e. reduction, dehydration and reduction is converted into
saturated 4 – C unit (i.e. butyryl – CoA). In acyl transfer reaction the fatty acid residue is
transferred back to the – SH group to which the acetyl group was transferred in initiation
reaction. The cycle is repeated again and again with malonyl transfer, condensation etc. till
the fatty acid residue consists of up to 16 - 18 C atoms. Each such turn elongates fatty acid
chain by 2 – C atoms. Details of chain elongation reactions are given below
Termination reaction
When the fatty acid residue has attained a desired length the chain elongation stops at
reaction (v) and the cycle is not repeated. The acyl group instead of being transferred to the
- SH of the enzyme is transferred to – SH group of Co-enzyme A (CoASH) molecule. Thus,
CoA derivate of the fatty acid is produced which can then be utilized in fat synthesis. The
enzyme becomes free.
It is believed that during this process of fatty acid synthesis, the acyl group of fatty acid
bound to the – SH group of ACP. The latter then passes it from one enzyme of the complex
to the other.
(3) Condensation of fatty acids and Glycerol
The fats or triglycerides are synthesized not from glycerol and free fatty acids but from
α – glycerophosphate and CoA derivatives of fatty acid, i.e. fatty acyl CoA residues. First,
there is acylation of α – glycerophosphate by two fatty acyl – CoA molecule to from
phosphatidic acid. Now dephosphorylation occurs in the presence of phosphatase and a
deglyceride is formed. The acylation of the free – OH groups of diglyceride completes the
biosynthesis of triglyceride or fat.
Summary Cheat Sheet
- Review each concept section above in sequence to connect definitions, processes, and applied crop-physiology outcomes.
- Focus on high-yield terms, pathways, and condition-dependent responses for exam-ready recall.
- Use the listed examples, comparisons, and cycles as rapid-revision anchors before practice questions.
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