🐜 Polyphagous Pests
Locusts, termites, white grub, khapra beetle, red hairy caterpillar, Helicoverpa armigera — life cycles, damage, management for CUET Agriculture
Polyphagous pests are insects that feed on a wide range of host plants across multiple crop families. They are particularly destructive because they can survive and multiply on many different crops and weeds, making them difficult to control through crop rotation alone. This lesson covers the six most important polyphagous pests of Indian agriculture.
I. Grasshopper & Locust (फड़का एवं टिड्डी)
Desert Locust (Schistocerca gregaria) — Source: Wikimedia Commons (CC)
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Phylum | Arthropoda |
| Class | Insecta / Hexapoda |
| Order | Orthoptera |
| Family | Acrididae |
There are about 5000 species of grasshoppers worldwide, but only 9 species qualify as true locusts. The word "Locust" literally means famine (महामारी), reflecting the catastrophic crop destruction these insects can cause. Locusts are omnivorous (सर्वभक्षी) and are also called international pests (अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय शत्रु) because their swarms can cross national boundaries.
The defining characteristic of locusts is their gregarious behaviour — under certain environmental conditions, solitary individuals transform into a gregarious phase, forming huge swarms that migrate long distances and destroy all vegetation in their path. An important distinction to remember: not all grasshoppers are locusts, but all locusts are grasshoppers.
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Polyphagous pests are insects that feed on a wide range of host plants across multiple crop families. They are particularly destructive because they can survive and multiply on many different crops and weeds, making them difficult to control through crop rotation alone. This lesson covers the six most important polyphagous pests of Indian agriculture.
I. Grasshopper & Locust (फड़का एवं टिड्डी)
Desert Locust (Schistocerca gregaria) — Source: Wikimedia Commons (CC)
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Phylum | Arthropoda |
| Class | Insecta / Hexapoda |
| Order | Orthoptera |
| Family | Acrididae |
There are about 5000 species of grasshoppers worldwide, but only 9 species qualify as true locusts. The word "Locust" literally means famine (महामारी), reflecting the catastrophic crop destruction these insects can cause. Locusts are omnivorous (सर्वभक्षी) and are also called international pests (अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय शत्रु) because their swarms can cross national boundaries.
The defining characteristic of locusts is their gregarious behaviour — under certain environmental conditions, solitary individuals transform into a gregarious phase, forming huge swarms that migrate long distances and destroy all vegetation in their path. An important distinction to remember: not all grasshoppers are locusts, but all locusts are grasshoppers.
Grasshopper vs Locust Comparison
| Feature | Grasshopper (फड़का) | Locust (टिड्डी) |
|---|---|---|
| Scientific Name | Rice G: Hieroglyphus banian; Kharif G: H. nigrorepletus | Desert L: Schistocerca gregaria; Bombay L: Patanga succincta; Migratory L: Locusta migratoria; Tree L: Anacridium sp. |
| Colour | Green, brown or dark yellow | Changes with phase: immature = pink; adult = yellow |
| Habit | Solitary | Solitary AND gregarious |
| Migration | Does not migrate | Highly migratory (can travel hundreds of kilometres) |
| Flight | Short flight | Long sustained flight |
| Hind legs | Strongest (for jumping) | Relatively less strong |
| Damage | Feeds on leaves of crops | Feeds on ALL types of vegetation indiscriminately |
Locust Warning Organisation
- Established in 1939 at Jodhpur (Rajasthan, India) to monitor and forecast locust outbreaks
- Central level headquarters: Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine & Storage, Faridabad, Haryana
- 3 locust species are found in India:
- Desert Locust (Schistocerca gregaria) — Found primarily in Rajasthan; the most destructive
- Migratory Locust (Locusta migratoria) — Found in Rajasthan & Gujarat
- Bombay Locust (Patanga succincta) — Found in Gujarat & Tamil Nadu
Phase Theory (प्रावस्था सिद्धान्त)
The Desert locust exhibits a remarkable phenomenon called phase polymorphism — it can exist in two distinct phases with dramatically different appearance and behaviour:
| Phase | Characteristics |
|---|---|
| Solitary Phase | Low population numbers; green/brown colour; male turns pale green on maturity (female stays brown); hoppers are fewer; insects behave like individual grasshoppers |
| Gregarious Phase | High numbers forming massive swarms; yellow/orange body with black markings; immature adults are pink/rose coloured; mature adults are bright yellow; highly migratory and destructive |
| Transiens | An intermediate transitional phase between solitary and gregarious, showing mixed characteristics |
Host Plants
- Feeds on almost ALL plants except Oak (आक), Neem, Jamun, and Sheesham (शीशम) — these trees contain natural repellent compounds
Damaging Stage
- Both nymph (hopper) and adult stages cause damage — the nymphs are called "hoppers" because they cannot fly and move by hopping
Life Cycle
- Female lays eggs in loose sandy soil in groups of 50-150 eggs per egg pod, at a depth of 10-15 cm
- Eggs are cylindrical: 7 mm long, 1 mm diameter; rice grain-coloured (pale yellow)
- Egg incubation: 10-40 days (varies with temperature and soil moisture)
- Nymph (hopper): Undergoes 5 moults; duration 3-10 weeks; wingless initially, with wings developing gradually at each moult
- Breeding is seasonal and depends heavily on rainfall
- India: Only summer breeding (June-October in Rajasthan & Gujarat)
- Pakistan: Both spring AND summer breeding
- Multiple generations per year in favourable conditions
Management
A. Destruction of Hoppers:
- Create trenches at breeding sites; add 2% Lindane dust to kill hoppers that fall in
- Spray BHC dust at 0.2% concentration on egg pods
B. Destruction of Adult Locusts:
- Collect adults at night when they are resting on vegetation and are less active
- Use thorny fences or vehicles to crush them in breeding areas
C. On Crops:
- Spray 0.1% Neem oil (Nimboli) emulsion — acts as a repellent and antifeedant
- Apply Lindane 20 EC at 0.2% concentration
D. Natural Enemies of Locust:
- Troxoproserus beetle — feeds on locust eggs in soil
- Small wasps of the Scelio family parasitize locust eggs
- Bacillus thuringiensis bacterium (bacterial control)
- Predatory birds: Myna, Crow, and Stork are important natural enemies
II. Termite / White Ant (दीमक)
Termite — Source: Wikimedia Commons (CC)
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Scientific Name | Odontotermes obesus |
| Phylum | Arthropoda |
| Class | Insecta / Hexapoda |
| Order | Isoptera |
| Family | Termitidae |
Despite being called "white ants," termites are not ants at all — they are more closely related to cockroaches. Termites are eusocial and colonial insects that live inside elaborate nests called termitaria (mounds) built by workers from soil, saliva, and excreta. They show a highly organized caste system with clear division of labour. Termites are polyphagous — they feed on all materials containing cellulose, including plant roots, wood, paper, and cloth.
Caste System
A. Sterile Castes (निर्जन जातियों)
Both male and female members of sterile castes are wingless and do not reproduce.
1. Workers (श्रमिक):
- Make up 80-90% of the colony — the most numerous caste
- Duties include: Feeding other castes, caring for eggs and young, building and repairing the nest, and foraging for food
- Workers are the most economically important caste because they are the ones that cause all the crop damage
2. Soldiers (सैनिक):
- Make up only 3-5% of the colony
- Have strong, enlarged mandibles specialised for colony defence against predators (especially ants)
- Cannot feed themselves — workers feed them
B. Reproductive Castes (जननक जातियों)
1. King (राजा): Fertilises the queen; lives permanently in the royal chamber at the centre of the nest
2. Queen (रानी):
- The largest individual in the colony — body length approximately 5 cm, abdomen about 1 cm wide
- Lays an astonishing 70,000-80,000 eggs per day
- Lifespan: 5-10 years
- Often called an "egg-laying machine" due to her enormous reproductive output
3. Alates / Reproductives (पंख विहीन):
- Winged forms that emerge from the colony during the monsoon season
- After the nuptial flight: wings are shed → a male-female pair forms → they burrow into soil → start a new colony
- Types: Long-winged, Short-winged, and Wingless reproductives
Nature of Damage
- Baby termites and workers attack plant roots from underground, often going undetected until the plant wilts
- Active throughout the year but damage is more visible during the rainy season (monsoon) when soil moisture is high
- Termites create characteristic mud tunnels/galleries from soil to the plant stem, protecting themselves from light and predators while they feed
Life Cycle
Monsoon → First good rain → Winged reproductives (alates) emerge → Nuptial flight (swarming) → Wings shed → Male + Female pair → Enter soil → Build new colony → Queen starts laying eggs
- Eggs: Light pale coloured, kidney-shaped
- Egg hatching: Within 1 week (in summer)
- Workers develop fully in approximately 6 months from hatching
- Termites are photophobic (avoid light); they are active at night and underground
Symbiotic Digestion
Termites cannot digest cellulose on their own — they rely on symbiotic microorganisms in their gut:
| Termite Category | Cellulose Digester |
|---|---|
| Lower termites | Flagellate Protozoa (gut symbionts) |
| Higher termites | Bacteria or Fungi (including cultivated fungus gardens) |
Management
1. Soil Treatment:
- Apply Methyl parathion / Malathion powder @ 25 kg/hectare before sowing
- Or Chlorpyrifos 20 EC @ 4 litres per hectare mixed with irrigation water
2. Standing Crop:
- Drench soil with Chlorpyrifos 20 EC @ 4 litres/hectare through irrigation water
III. White Grub (सफेद लट)
White Grub / Chafer Beetle (Scarabaeidae) — Source: Wikimedia Commons (CC)
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Scientific Name | Holotrichia sp. |
| Phylum | Arthropoda |
| Class | Insecta / Hexapoda |
| Order | Coleoptera |
| Family | Scarabaeidae |
The white grub is also known by several common names: Cockchafer beetle, May beetle, June beetle (मई/जून भृंग). It is a nationally important pest of Kharif (monsoon) crops across India. The most distinctive identification feature is that the grub body is "C" shaped — this characteristic curled posture immediately identifies a scarabaeid grub.
Main Species in India
| Region | Species |
|---|---|
| North India | Holotrichia consanguinea |
| South India | Holotrichia serrata |
Host Plants
- Attacks all Kharif field crops during the monsoon season — groundnut, soybean, sugarcane, millets, pulses, and vegetables
Damaging Stage
- Grub (larva) — the primary damaging stage; feeds on roots underground, causing devastating damage that is often noticed only when plants start wilting
- Adult beetle — feeds on leaves of trees (polyphagous) but causes less economic damage compared to the grub
Nature of Damage
- The 3rd instar grub is the most destructive stage — it feeds voraciously on roots, causing wilting and death of plants
- Grub cuts roots → plant withers → affected area shows characteristic patches of dead plants in the field
- Adult beetles feed on leaves of fruit trees and shrubs (Khejri, Guler, Neem, Sengna, Jamun, Babool etc.)
- Fruit trees are the most preferred host plants for adult beetle feeding
Life Cycle
| Stage | Details |
|---|---|
| Adult beetle emergence | After the first monsoon rain (July-August); adults emerge from soil at 7:30-8:00 PM; attracted to nearby host trees for mating |
| Mating flight timing | Earliest before 4:45 PM; typically around dusk |
| Egg laying | Female lays 50-60 eggs in soil at 10-15 cm depth; eggs deposited 2-3 days after mating |
| Egg incubation | Summer: 3-5 days; Winter: 6-10 days |
| Grub (larva) | White coloured initially → develops brown head capsule; "C" shaped; duration 82-113 days; most damaging stage |
| Pupa | In soil at 40-70 cm depth; pupal period 2-3 weeks |
| Adult | Orange-brown coloured beetle; 2-3 cm long; dense hair on body; lifespan 20-30 days (male), 20-40 days (female) |
| Total life cycle | ~1 year (one generation per year) |
| Generations | 1 per year (univoltine) |
Management
- Host plants: Spray Carbaryl @ 1.25 ml or Monocrotophos @ 4 ml per litre on trees where adults congregate
- Collect beetles at night using light traps placed near host trees; destroy collected beetles
- Light traps: Attract and kill adult beetles — most effective method for reducing adult population
- Pheromone trap: Female pheromone (Methoxybenzene) lures males for monitoring and mass trapping
- Seed treatment: Chlorpyrifos 20 EC or Quinalphos 25 EC to protect seeds and seedlings
- Soil treatment: Phorate 10% or Quinalphos 5% or Carbofuran 3% @ 25 kg/hectare before sowing
- Standing crop: Drench with Chlorpyrifos 20 EC @ 4 litres/hectare through irrigation water
Biological Control of White Grub
| Agent Type | Name |
|---|---|
| Bacteria | Bacillus popillae (causes milky disease) |
| Fungi | Metarhizium anisopliae, Beauveria bassiana |
| EPN (Nematode) | Heterorhabditis sp. |
| Vertebrate predators | Crow, Myna, Stork (Bagula) |
| Invertebrate predators | Carabid beetles (ground beetles) |
IV. Khapra Beetle (खपरा भृंग)
Khapra Beetle (Trogoderma granarium) — Source: Wikimedia Commons (CC)
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Scientific Name | Trogoderma granarium |
| Phylum | Arthropoda |
| Class | Insecta / Hexapoda |
| Order | Coleoptera |
| Family | Dermestidae |
The Khapra beetle is also known as the Cabinet beetle and is notably native to India. It is one of the world's most serious stored grain pests and is a quarantine pest in many countries — its detection in grain shipments can lead to trade restrictions.
Identification Marks
| Stage | Description |
|---|---|
| Grub | Brown coloured, hairy body, approximately 4 mm long |
| Adult beetle | Dark brown, 2-3 mm long; male is smaller than female; female is more darkly coloured |
Host Plants
- Stored grains: Wheat, Barley, Jowar, Maize, Rice, Gram, Pulses, Dry fruits, etc. — essentially all stored cereal and pulse grains
Damaging Stage
- Both beetle (adult) and grub (larva) cause damage
- Maximum damage period: July to October (warm, humid months)
Nature of Damage
- Grub enters grains by cutting through the embryo region and eats the entire grain content (embryo + endosperm), leaving only the seed coat
- Grub can damage grain up to 50 cm depth in storage — however, infestation is typically concentrated in the surface layer
- Cast larval skins contaminate grain and can cause allergic reactions in humans
Life Cycle
| Stage | Duration |
|---|---|
| Egg incubation | Summer: 3-5 days; Winter: 6-10 days |
| Grub | 8-20 days (damaging stage) |
| Pupa | 4-6 days (pupation occurs inside grain) |
| Adult | Male: 20-30 days; Female: 20-40 days |
| Eggs per female | 120-150 |
| Total life cycle | ~129-150 days |
| Generations/year | Multiple (4-5 generations possible) |
Management
- Store grain at 8-10% moisture only — lower moisture prevents pest multiplication
- Keep stored grain bags at least 50 cm away from walls to allow air circulation and inspection
- Fumigation:
- EDCT @ 30-40 kg/100 m³
- Methyl Bromide (MB) @ 3.5 kg/100 m³
- Ethylene Dibromide (EDB) @ 3 ml/quintal of grain
- Mix grain with Neem seed at 100:1 ratio (100 parts cereal + 1 part Neem seed) — neem acts as a repellent and growth disruptor
- Do not fumigate ground/milled food products — fumigants are only for raw whole grains
V. Red Hairy Caterpillar / RHC (कातरा)
Bihar Hairy Caterpillar moth (Spilosoma obliqua) — Source: Wikimedia Commons (CC)
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Scientific Name | Amsacta moorei |
| Phylum | Arthropoda |
| Class | Insecta / Hexapoda |
| Order | Lepidoptera |
| Family | Arctiidae |
The ventral surface of the adult moth is characteristically red/orange coloured. The fully developed caterpillar is 40-50 mm long, orange-brown coloured, and covered with dense hair that can cause skin irritation on contact. RHC is polyphagous — it feeds on ALL Kharif crops without preference, making it extremely damaging.
The damaging stage is the caterpillar (larva).
Nature of Damage
- Caterpillars initially feed gregariously (in groups), consuming all tender parts of the plant. As they grow, they disperse and eat all plant parts individually.
- This pest is considered a 100% destructive pest (शत प्रतिशन हानि) — it can completely defoliate and destroy a field
- The caterpillars move from one field to another in characteristic army-like processions, earning them a feared reputation among farmers
- Peak feeding activity occurs from August to October during the Kharif season
Life Cycle
| Stage | Duration |
|---|---|
| Egg | Laid on lower leaf surface in large clusters; incubation 4-5 days |
| Caterpillar | 6 moults; 15-23 days (the damaging stage) |
| Pupa | 9-10 months (in soil in dormant/quiescent diapause state) — this extraordinarily long pupal period is a key survival strategy |
| Adult moth | Short-lived; emerged adults mate quickly and lay eggs |
| Generations | 4 per year |
NOTE
The pupal diapause of 9-10 months is one of the most distinctive features of RHC. The cocoon remains in soil from April to August in a resting state, waiting for the monsoon rains to trigger adult emergence. This means deep summer ploughing before the monsoon is highly effective — it exposes dormant cocoons to desiccation and predation.
Management
- Light traps: Place kerosene + water (5:95 ratio) below a light source at night to attract and kill adult moths
- Destroy eggs: Eggs are large and laid in conspicuous clusters — easy to find, collect, and destroy manually
- Trenching: Dig trench around the field; fill with Methyl Parathion powder at 20% concentration to kill marching caterpillar columns
- Deep ploughing: Expose dormant cocoons in soil to sun → desiccation and bird predation
- Biological control:
- Predatory birds: Myna, Crow, Stork (Bagula)
- Egg parasitoid: Trichogramma sp. and Telenomus sp.
- Chemical control:
- For caterpillar: Spray Methyl Parathion 2% or Malathion 5% or Quinalphos 1.5% dust
- Or spray Quinalphos 25 EC @ 1.25 litres or Carbaryl 50 WP @ 1 kg in 250-500 litres water per hectare
VI. Gram Pod Borer / Fruit & Pod Borer (फल एवं फली वेधक) — Helicoverpa armigera
Helicoverpa armigera (Cotton Bollworm / Pod Borer) — Source: Wikimedia Commons (CC)
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Scientific Name | Helicoverpa armigera |
| Phylum | Arthropoda |
| Class | Insecta / Hexapoda |
| Order | Lepidoptera |
| Family | Noctuidae |
Helicoverpa armigera is the most polyphagous and most destructive pest in India. It attacks over 180 plant species across multiple families and is called the "King of Bollworms" in cotton. Its ability to develop resistance to insecticides makes it particularly challenging to manage.
Host Plants & Damage Names
The same pest goes by different common names depending on which crop it attacks:
| Crop | Damage Called |
|---|---|
| Chickpea (Gram) | Gram pod borer |
| Pea | Pod borer |
| Cotton | American bollworm |
| Maize/Corn | Cob worm |
| Sunflower | Head borer |
| Tomato | Fruit borer |
Damaging Stage
- Caterpillar/larva — the only damaging stage. The caterpillar is greenish-brown with characteristic dark lateral stripes along the body.
Life Cycle
| Stage | Duration |
|---|---|
| Egg | Laid singly (अलग-अलग) on flowers and pods (not in clusters); incubation 2-4 days |
| Caterpillar | 5 moults; 15-23 days; greenish-brown with dark lateral stripes |
| Pupa | In soil; pupal period 6-15 days |
| Adult moth | Brown forewings, pale hindwings; female lays 500-1000 eggs during her lifetime |
| Generations/year | ~8 (multiple overlapping generations throughout the year) |
Nature of Damage
- The caterpillar bores into pods/fruits, inserting its head inside and eating the seeds or pulp from within — often with its body still hanging outside
- A single caterpillar can damage 30-60% of a tomato crop through successive fruit feeding
- In tomato, the caterpillar enters the fruit and feeds on the pulp (soft inner part), leaving characteristic entry holes with frass
- Active throughout the year but peak damage occurs during November-March (Rabi season for pulses)
Management
- Light trap (प्रकाश पाश) — for monitoring adult moth emergence
- Pheromone trap: Helilure (हेलिल्यूर) — for monitoring population levels and mass trapping males
- Trap crop: African Marigold + Tomato (1:14 ratio) — marigold attracts the moth for egg-laying, diverting it from the main crop
- Chemical spray: Methyl Parathion 2% or Malathion 5% or Quinalphos 1.5% or Chlorpyrifos 20 EC
- Pupation control: Apply Carbaryl 50 WP @ 2.5 kg in 500-600 litres water per hectare to target pupae in soil
- Biological control:
- Pheromone trap @ 50% fruit damage threshold, or use NPV @ 1.5 × 10¹² PIB per hectare
- Release Campolestis chloridae (larval parasitoid)
- HaNPV (Helicoverpa-specific Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus) — 500 LE per hectare for gram/cotton — the virus specifically infects and kills Helicoverpa caterpillars without harming other organisms
Key Points for CUET
IMPORTANT
- Locust = Schistocerca gregaria; Orthoptera; has solitary and gregarious phases; Locust Warning Organisation at Jodhpur (1939)
- Termite = Odontotermes obesus; Isoptera; social insect with castes; queen lays 70,000-80,000 eggs/day
- White Grub = Holotrichia sp.; Coleoptera; "C" shaped grub; root feeder; 1 generation/year (univoltine)
- Khapra Beetle = Trogoderma granarium; Coleoptera; native to India; storage pest; grub and adult damage grain
- RHC = Amsacta moorei; Lepidoptera; polyphagous; caterpillar stage damaging; pupa dormant 9-10 months
- Helicoverpa = H. armigera; Lepidoptera; Noctuidae; most polyphagous pest; American bollworm in cotton; gram pod borer in pulses; ~8 generations/year
Summary Cheat Sheet
| Concept / Topic | Key Details / Explanation |
|---|---|
| Polyphagous pests | Feed on a wide range of host plants across multiple families |
| Locust — Scientific name | Schistocerca gregaria (Desert Locust); Order Orthoptera; Family Acrididae |
| Locust — Key fact | Means "famine"; international pests; ~5000 grasshopper species, only 9 are true locusts |
| Locust species in India | 3: Desert Locust (Rajasthan), Migratory Locust (Rajasthan/Gujarat), Bombay Locust (Gujarat/TN) |
| Locust Warning Organisation | 1939 at Jodhpur, Rajasthan |
| Phase polymorphism | Solitary (green/brown) → Transiens → Gregarious (yellow, swarming, migratory) |
| Locust — Immune plants | Oak, Neem, Jamun, Sheesham |
| Locust — Damaging stage | Both nymph (hopper) and adult |
| Locust — Eggs | 50-150 per pod in sandy soil at 10-15 cm; India: summer breeding only |
| Termite — Scientific name | Odontotermes obesus; Order Isoptera; Family Termitidae |
| Termite — Castes | Workers (80-90%, cause all damage), Soldiers (3-5%), King, Queen |
| Termite — Queen | ~5 cm; 70,000-80,000 eggs/day; lifespan 5-10 years |
| Termite — Cellulose digestion | Lower: Flagellate Protozoa; Higher: Bacteria/Fungi |
| White Grub — Scientific name | Holotrichia sp.; Order Coleoptera; Family Scarabaeidae |
| White Grub — Identification | "C" shaped grub; Cockchafer/May/June beetle |
| White Grub — Damaging stage | 3rd instar grub — feeds on roots; adults emerge after first monsoon rain at 7:30-8:00 PM |
| White Grub — Life cycle | 1 year (univoltine); eggs 50-60 in soil |
| White Grub — Biocontrol | Bacillus popillae (milky disease), Metarhizium, Beauveria, Heterorhabditis |
| Khapra Beetle — Scientific name | Trogoderma granarium; Order Coleoptera; Family Dermestidae |
| Khapra Beetle — Key fact | Native to India; quarantine pest; Cabinet beetle |
| Khapra Beetle — Damage | Both grub and adult; max damage July-October; store grain at 8-10% moisture |
| RHC — Scientific name | Amsacta moorei; Order Lepidoptera; Family Arctiidae |
| RHC — Damage | Caterpillar is damaging stage; 100% destructive pest; army-like processions |
| RHC — Pupa | 9-10 months dormant in soil (diapause); deep ploughing exposes them |
| RHC — Generations | 4 per year |
| Helicoverpa — Scientific name | Helicoverpa armigera; Order Lepidoptera; Family Noctuidae |
| Helicoverpa — Key fact | Most polyphagous and destructive pest; attacks 180+ species |
| Helicoverpa — Crop names | Gram pod borer, American bollworm (cotton), Cob worm (maize), Fruit borer (tomato) |
| Helicoverpa — Eggs | Laid singly; 500-1000 per female |
| Helicoverpa — Generations | ~8 per year |
| Helicoverpa — Biocontrol | HaNPV @ 500 LE/ha; Helilure pheromone; Campolestis chloridae parasitoid |
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